Week 3 Session 2: Biopsychology/Neuroscience pt. 2

REVIEW: what is a genotype?

refers to the genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one’s parents

REVIEW: what is phenotype?

describes an individual’s observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build. (credit a: modification of work by Caroline Davis; credit b: modification of work by Cory Zanker)

REVIEW: what is a neuron?

serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all the tasks of the nervous system.

REVIEW: what is the function of a neuron?

The function of a neuron is aided by specific aspects of its structure.

REVIEW: what does the semi-permeable membrane allow for?

Its semi-permeable membrane allows smaller molecules or molecules
without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger
or highly charged molecules.

REVIEW: where do incoming electrical signals get received by?

they are received by the dendrites (hair) (thats what they do)

REVIEW: after being received by the dendrites where does the signal go?

the signal goes down to the axon (body)`

REVIEW: What are dendrites?

a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

REVIEW: what are Axons?

are long, slender projections of neurons (nerve cells) that carry electrical
signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

REVIEW: What are axons covered in?

A myelin sheath made of a fatty substance that insulates axons and allows the signal to travel down quickly.

REVIEW: what does the myelin sheath do?

drastically increases the speed of electrical impulse transmission and protects neurons.

REVIEW: What is at the end of axons?

At the end of the axons are terminal buttons which contain synaptic vessels
(storage sites for chemical messengers called neurotransmitters)

REVIEW: what do synaptic vessels have at the end?

neurotransmitters

REVIEW: What are synaptic vessels?

(storage sites for chemical messengers called neurotransmitters)

REVIEW: What is action potential?

an electrical signal. Action potentials act on an all-or-none
principle - the incoming signal is either sufficient to reach the threshold of
excitation or it is not

REVIEW: what is a neurons resting potential?

–70 mV

REVIEW: when incoming signal depolarize what is a neuron at?

When incoming signals depolarize the neuron to about –55 mV, the threshold is reached

REVIEW: When the threshold is reached what happens?

Once this threshold is crossed, an action potential fires (all-or-none)

REVIEW: What are neurotransmitters?

chemical messenger of the nervous system.

REVIEW: are all neurons the same?

Different neurons release different types of neurotransmitters that
have many different functions.

REVIEW: what is biological perspective?

The view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

REVIEW: what is acetylcholine?

muscle action and memory

REVIEW: what is beta-endorphin?

pain and pleasure

REVIEW: what is dopamine?

mood, sleep, and learning

REVIEW: what is norepinephrine?

Heart, intestines, and alertness.

REVIEW: what is serotonin?

mood and sleep

what is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

It is made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS (central nervous system) and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body

what 2 parts that make up the peripheral nervous system?

1. somatic nervous system

2. autonomic nervous system

what is the somatic nervous system?

a component of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary movement of skeletal muscles and processing conscious sensory information

• relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS.

what is the autonomic nervous system?

controls our internal organs and glands, and can be divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems

what is the sympathetic nervous system?

involved in stress-related activities and functions; prepares us for fight or flight

• a part of the autonomic nervous system

what is the fight or flight response?

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety.

• a part of the autonomic nervous system

what is the parasympathetic nervous system ?

associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body under relaxed conditions.

• Rest and restore response – relaxes the body after fight or flight
  (aka rest and digest)

how do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system complement each other?

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems complement
each other to maintain homeostasis, a state of equilibrium in the body.

what is the brain compromised of?

Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia

the brain is Bilateral, what does this mean?

this means the brain is two sided

• Can be separated into distinct lobes but all areas interact with one another.

what does the spinal cord do?

Delivers messages to and from the brain

what are some characteristics of the spinal cord?

• Has its own system of reflexes.

• The top merges with the brain stem and the bottom ends just below the ribs

• Functionally organized into 30 segments, each connected to a specific part of the body through the PNS (peripheral nervous system)

how does the brain stem function?

• Sensory nerves bring messages in and up to the brain; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs.

• In moments of survival, automatic reflexes allow motor commands to be initiated without sending signals from sensory nerves to the brain first, allowing for very quick reactions

what is lateralization?

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

what does the left side of the hemisphere control?

controls the right side of the body

what does the right hemisphere control?

the left side of the body

what is the surface of the brain covered with?

gyri and sulci

what is a deep sulcus called?

fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)

what does the corpus callous do?

connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

what is a corpus callous?

a large, C-shaped bundle of over 200 million myelinated nerve fibers located in the center of the brain

where are the three main parts of the brain?

1. forebrain

2. midbrain

3. hindbrain

where is the forebrain?

in the front (durr)

what is the forebrain?

It is the largest part of the brain.

what does the forebrain contain?

It contains:

• The cerebral cortex

• Thalamus

• Hypothalamus

• Pituitary gland

• Limbic system

what does the cerebral cortex do and what is it?

• is the brain's outer layer of gray matter, responsible for higher functions like thinking, language, memory, consciousness, and voluntary movement

  • higher-level processes

what is a thalamus?

Either of two masses of gray matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a center for pain perception.

• sensory relay

what is the hypothalamus?

a small, vital region of the brain located below the thalamus that acts as the body's main "smart control" center

• homeostasis (functions—including body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and mood)

what is the Pituitary gland?

a pea-sized "master endocrine gland" located at the base of the brain, just behind the nose

• master gland of the endocrine system

what is the limbic system?

a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas near the edge of the cortex concerned with instinct and mood. It controls the basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (hunger, sex, dominance, care of offspring).

• emotion and memory circuit

what is the cerebral cortex?

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities, such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory.

• It can be broken up into four lobes, each with a different function.

what is the frontal lobe involved with?

involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgement, attention, reasoning), motor control, emotion, and language.

because the frontal lobe is involved with functioning what does it contain?

• The Motor cortex

• The Prefrontal cortex

• Broca’s area

what is the motor cortex?

strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement.

what is the the Prefrontal cortex?

responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning.

what is the Broca’s area?

region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production.

if the Broca’s area is damaged what happens?

Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulties producing language.

what is the story of Phineas gage and his frontal lobe?

While working as a railroad foreman, an accident caused an iron rod to penetrate through Gage’s skull and frontal lobe.

what happened after the incident?

• After the accident, people noticed changes in his personality.

  • Before the accident - Well-mannered and soft-spoken.

• After the accident - Started behaving in odd and inappropriate ways.

  • These changes were consistent with loss of impulse
    control (a function of the frontal lobe)

what is the reticular formation important for? (midbrain)

• important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity

  • (reTICKLEular formation)

what is substantia Nigra? (midbrain)

where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement.

• control movement, motivation, reward, and emotion

  • primarily drives motor function and habit learning

what is ventral tegmental area (VTA)?

It is a cluster of neurons in the midbrain that serves as a core component of the brain's reward, motivation, and cognition circuitry

• where dopamine is produced; associated with mood, reward, and addiction

  • primarily manages reward, motivation, and cognition

what happens if degeneration is found in the SN and VTA?

Degeneration of the Substantia Nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson’s disease.

what can be found in the hindbrain (back)?

• medulla

• pons

• cerebellum

what is the medulla?

controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

• when medulla = medusa when u see medusa u get scared and your heart rate goes crazy.

what is pons?

connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

• pons = pillows

what is cerebellum?

controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

• cereBALANCEBEAM!

although the pons, medulla, and cerebellum are apart of the hindbrain, combined what structure are they?

These 3 structures combined are known as the brain stem.

what brain imaging techniques involve radiation?

• CT SCAN

  • PET SCAN

what brain imaging techniques involving magnetic fields?

• MRI

• FMRI

what brain imaging involves electrical activity?

• EEG

what is a CT scan (computerized tomography)?

Involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through varied densities within the brain.

• A CT scan be used to show brain tumors

what is a PET scan (position emission tomography)?

Involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain

how is a PET scan helpful?

is helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain. (credit: Health and Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health)

• PET scan is helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain.

what is a MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)?

a brain imaging technique that uses magnets and radio waves to create DETAILED pictures of the brain’s structure

what is FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)?

MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time (it MEASURES brain activity).

what is EEG 9electroencephalography)?

Involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp.

how does a EEG work?

Using caps with electrodes, modern EEG research can study the precise timing of overall brain activities by tracking the amplitude and frequency of brainwaves.

what is the endocrine system?

A series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal body functions.

how does the hypothalamus link up?

The Hypothalamus links the nervous system and endocrine system by
controlling the pituitary gland.

what doe the endocrine system contain?

• pituitary gland

• thyroid

• adrenal gland

• gonad

• pancreas

what does the pituitary gland do?

serves as the master gland, controlling the secretions of all other glands.

what does the thyroid do?

secretes Thyroxine which regulates growth, metabolism and appetite

what does the adrenal gland do?

secretes hormones involved in the stress response

what does the gonad do?

secretes sex hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and regulate sexual motivation and behavior

what does the pancreas do?

secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar.