BIOL 1040 Final Lab Exam Review Guide

macromolecules

Large complex molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

vitamin

Organic compounds that are essential for normal growth and nutrition, usually required in small quantities in the diet.

mineral

Inorganic substances that are essential for various bodily functions, including bone formation and enzyme function.

carbohydrate

Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically used as a primary energy source.

monosaccharide

The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules like glucose and fructose.

disaccharide

Carbohydrates formed by the combination of two monosaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose.

polysaccharide

Carbohydrates that consist of long chains of monosaccharide units, such as starch and glycogen.

lipid

A group of organic compounds that are hydrophobic and include fats, oils, and waxes, serving as energy storage.

protein

Large biomolecules made up of amino acids, essential for structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

amino acid

Organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain.

catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing permanent change.

enzyme

A biological catalyst that accelerates chemical reactions in living organisms.

activation energy

The minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.

enzyme-substrate complex

The intermediate formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate.

substrate

The reactant molecule upon which an enzyme acts.

product

The end result of a chemical reaction, formed from the substrate by the action of an enzyme.

active site

The specific region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, to be tested through experimentation.

dependent variable

The variable that is measured and affected in an experiment.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.

controlled variable

Variables that are kept constant throughout an experiment to ensure a fair test.

replication

The repetition of an experiment to confirm results and ensure reliability.

control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, used as a benchmark.

experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

algae density

A measure of the concentration of algae in a given volume of water, often used in ecological studies.

basic structure of carbohydrates

• Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a ratio of roughly 1:2:1

• Monomers (building blocks): Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose – C₆H₁₂O₆)

• Polymer forms: Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose), Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)

basic structure of lipids

• Made mostly of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and some oxygen (O)

• Not true polymers, but usually built from:

  • Glycerol backbone

  • Fatty acid chains (long hydrocarbon tails)

basic structure of proteins

• Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sometimes sulfur (S)

• Monomers: Amino acids (20 different kinds)

• Polymers: Polypeptides (chains of amino acids)

explain the factors that affect the rate of enzyme activity

• Temperature – Works best at an optimal temp (around 37°C in humans); too high = enzyme denatures.

• pH – Each enzyme has a preferred pH; too acidic or too basic can denature it.

• Substrate Concentration – More substrate = faster reaction until enzymes are saturated.

• Enzyme Concentration – More enzymes = faster reaction if there’s enough substrate.

• Inhibitors – Slow down or block enzyme activity (can be competitive or non-competitive).

enzyme equation

Substrate(s) →(Enzyme)→ Product(s)

what causes the browning of a cut potato

• Cutting or damaging the potato breaks open its cells.

• This allows catechol (a compound inside the potato) to mix with oxygen in the air.

• The enzyme catechol oxidase catalyzes a reaction between catechol and oxygen.

• This forms benzoquinone, a brown-colored compound that helps protect the plant from microbes.

explain the concepts of enzyme specificity and optimal pH

• 🔑 Enzyme Specificity = Each enzyme fits and acts on a specific substrate.

• ⚖ Optimal pH = The pH where an enzyme works best; too far from that = reduced activity or denatured enzyme.

what are the parts of a lab report

• Title – What the experiment is about

• Introduction – Background info, purpose, and hypothesis

• Materials – List of tools and supplies used

• Methods – Step-by-step procedure

• Results – Data and observations (no explanations)

• Discussion – Explain what the results mean; analyze errors

• Conclusion – Summarize what you learned

• References – Cite any sources (if used)

example of an in-test citation for a lab report

(Smith, 2020) or (e.g., Smith, 2020, p. 15)

how do you calculate the concentration of a spice extract?

Divide the weight of the spice by the total amount of water added

explain the purpose of aseptic/sterile technique and explain how to do it

a set of practices used to protect your experiment from being contaminated, protect yourself and others from exposure to harmful microbes, and ensure accurate and reliable results.

• Wash Your Hands – Before and after the procedure

• Disinfect Your Work Area – Wipe down surfaces with alcohol or disinfectant

• Flame Sterilization – Use a Bunsen burner to sterilize metal tools like inoculating loops or needles

• Minimize Exposure – Keep lids closed, open tubes and Petri dishes only briefly and near a flame if possible

• Use Sterile Equipment – Use sterilized tools, pipettes, and media

• Do Not Breathe or Talk Over Open Plates/Tubes

• Dispose of Waste Properly – Place contaminated items in biohazard bags or designated bins

state the beneficial effects of spices

• Kill harmful microbes in food (antimicrobial)

• Preserve food and reduce spoilage

• Provide health benefits (e.g., anti-inflammatory)

• Used more in hot climates to prevent foodborne illness

• Also enhance flavor, which may increase appetite

explain why phytochemicals (or secondary compounds) evolved in spices

Phytochemicals evolved in spices as natural defenses to protect the plant from microbes, animals, and environmental stress. also, cell communication.

explain how to measure the algae density

using a spectrophotometer:

• Purpose: Measures how much light passes through a sample (called absorbance or optical density).

• Steps:

  1. Collect your algae culture or water sample.

  2. Pour the sample into a clean cuvette (small tube).

  3. Place the cuvette into the spectrophotometer.

  4. Set the wavelength (commonly 680 nm for green algae).

  5. Record the absorbance reading – higher absorbance = higher algae density.

describe the LIAT microcosm study and how it is used to study ecology

we can grow things in a tube and observe a part of an ecosystem while manipulating different variables. It allows us to study complex ecological systems on a much smaller scale, enabling us to perform experiments very quickly and at a much lower cost.

explain the relationship between organisms in communities: food chains, food webs, and predator-prey

• Food chains show who eats whom in a straight line.

• Food webs show a more complete picture of how energy flows through many connections.

• Predator-prey relationships keep populations in check and help maintain balance in ecosystems.