AP Psychology: Language & Development

AP Psychology

Phonemes

The smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

The understanding of the meaning of words and word combinations (denotation + connotation).

Syntax

A system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences.

Fast Mapping

The process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure.

Overextension

When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to.

Underextension

When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to.

Telegraphic Speech

Consists mainly of content words, with other less critical words omitted.

Overregularizations

When grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply.

Metalinguistic Awareness

The ability to reflect on the use of language.

Behaviorist Theories

Suggest that children can learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.

Nativist Theory

Proposes that humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that facilitates learning language.

Interactionist Theories

Suggest that both biology and experience contribute to the development of language.

Whorf Hypothesis

The theory that one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought.

Temperament

The basic foundation of personality referring to mood, activity levels, and emotional reactivity.

Attachment

Emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and caregivers.

Separation Anxiety

Anxiety exhibited in infants when separated from their caregivers.

Secure Attachment

When infants play comfortably with their mother present and are quickly calmed by her return.

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Infants who appear anxious even when the mother is near and protest excessively when she leaves.

Avoidant Attachment

Infants who seek little contact with the mother and are not distressed when she leaves.

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment

Infants confused about whether to approach or avoid the mother.

Erikson’s Theory of Development

A psychosocial development framework that outlines eight stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that influences personality development and social relationships across a person's lifespan.

• Trust vs Mistrust

• Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt… etc

Trust vs Mistrust

Erikson's first stage, where an optimistic trusting attitude develops.

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second stage, focusing on personal responsibility and self-sufficiency.

Initiative vs Guilt

Erikson's third stage, where taking initiative can lead to conflict with parental rules.

Industry vs Inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage, emphasizing productivity and achievement outside of the family.

Identity vs Confusion

Erikson's fifth stage where individuals struggle to form a clear sense of identity.

Intimacy vs Isolation

Erikson's sixth stage focusing on forming intimate relationships.

Generativity vs Self-Absorption

Erikson's seventh stage, emphasizing concern for the welfare of future generations.

Integrity vs Despair

Erikson's eighth stage, finding meaning and satisfaction in life lived.

James Marcia’s Theory of Development

a framework for understanding adolescent identity formation, focusing on four identity statuses

• identity diffusion

• identity foreclosure

• identity moratorium

• identity achievement.

Identity Diffusion

Not committing to a single identity and not searching for one.

Identity Foreclosure

A premature commitment to an identity, often due to external pressure.

Identity Moratorium

Delaying identity commitment to explore various options.

Identity Achievement

Commitment to an identity after consideration of different options.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures.

Accommodation

Changing mental structures to explain new experiences.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Development

A theory that explains how children develop cognitive skills through stages

• sensorimotor

• preoperational

• concrete operational

• formal operational

Sensorimotor Period

Piaget's first stage, focusing on coordination of sensory input and motor responses.

Preoperational Period

Piaget's second stage, characterized by a lack of understanding of conservation and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Period

Piaget's third stage, where mental operations are applied to concrete events.

Formal Operational Period

Piaget's fourth stage, involving mental operations applied to abstract ideas.

Zone of Proximal Development

The space between what a learner can do with support and what they can do unsupported.

Private Speech

Talking to oneself, often used to plan or accomplish goals.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Punishment Orientation

Kohlberg's first stage, where decisions of right and wrong are based on punishment.

Reward Orientation

Kohlberg's second stage, where right and wrong are determined by rewards.

Good Boy/Girl Orientation

Kohlberg's third stage, where good behavior pleases or helps others.

Authority Orientation

Kohlberg's fourth stage, determined by society's rules and laws.

Social Contract Orientation

Kohlberg's fifth stage, where societal rules are viewed in terms of public good.

Individual Principles and Conscience Orientation

Kohlberg's sixth stage, where right and wrong are guided by personal ethics.

Authoritative Parenting

High demandingness and high responsiveness in parenting.

Authoritarian Parenting

High demandingness and low responsiveness in parenting.

Permissive Parenting

Low demandingness and high responsiveness in parenting.

Neglectful Parenting

Low demandingness and low responsiveness in parenting.