AP Psychology: Language & Development

The Structure of Language

Phonemes: the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually

Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language

Semantics: the understanding of the meaning of words and word combinations (denotation + connotation)

Syntax: (AKA grammar) a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences.

Example: a sentence must have a noun and a verb

Milestones in Language Development

1-3 months: can distinguish phonemes from all the world’s languages, gradually disappears between 4-12 months unless consistently exposed to the sounds

1st 6 months: characterized by crying, cooing, and laughing, which soon gives way to babbling

10-13 months: most children utter sounds that correspond to words

Example: mama and papa

18 months: toddlers have a vocabulary between 3 -50 words. Receptive vocabulary is larger than productive vocabulary

18-24 months: vocabulary spurt

1st grade: vocabulary of about 10k words

Fast Mapping: the process which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure

Overextension: when a  child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to

Example: four-legged creature = dog

Underextension: when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to

Example: dollie = my doll

Telegraphic Speech: consists mainly of content words, articles, prepositions, and other less critical words omitted

Example: mommy see

Overregularizations: when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply

Example: buddy hitted me!

Metalinguistic Awareness: the ability to reflect the use of language.

Example: puns and jokes

Theories of Language Acquisition

Behaviorist Theories: children can learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning (Skinner)

Example: spaah getti before getting spaghetti

Nativist Theory: proposes that humans are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD) an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language

Interactionist Theories: biology and experience both interact to contribute to the development of language. Both a biological predisposition and a supportive environment

Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity Theory): one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought.

Examples: Inuit’s view of snow

Environment influences Language influences Perceptions

Temperament: basic foundation of personality | refers to mood, activity levels, and emotional reactivity (established at 2-3 months)

3 types: easy, slow-to-warm-up, difficult

Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory

Attachment: emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and caregivers

Separation anxiety: seen 6-8 months

Secure Attachment: play and explore comfortably with their mother present, becomes visibly upset when she leaves, quickly calmed down by her return

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment: appear anxious even when mother is near, protest excessively when she leaves, not particularly comforted when she returns

Avoidant Attachment: seeks little contact with mother, often not distressed when she leaves, (take her or leave her type of mentality)

Disorganized-Disoriented (Fearful) Attachment: confused about whether should approach or avoid mother, especially insecure

Harry Harlow’s Monkey Experiment: demonstrated importance of “contact-comfort” over even basic survival necessities

Eric Erikson

James Marcia Stages of Identity (Fluid)

1. Identity Diffusion: not committing to a single identity and not searching for one 

2. Identity Foreclosure: a premature commitment to an identity (usually due to pressure from others)

3. Identity Moratorium: delaying identity commitment to experiment with options 

4. Identity Achievement: commitment to an identity after consideration

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Children progress in their thinking through these 2 processes. 

Assimilation: interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures

EX: adding to the same schema 

Accommodation: changing mental structures to explain new experiences

EX: changing a schema 

Piaget’s Theory of Development

Sensorimotor Period (stage 1): 

• coordination of sensory input and motor responses

• development of object permanence

Preoperational Period (stage 2): 

• Lack of understanding of conservation 

• Centration: the tendency to focus on one feature of a problem 

• Irreversibility: the inability to envision reversing an action 

• Egocentrism: limited ability to share another person's POV

• Animism: the belief that everything (inanimate objects) is alive 

Concrete operational Period (stage 3): 

• Mental operations applied to concrete events

• Mastery of conservation and hierarchical classification 

Formal Operational Period (stage 4): 

• Mental operations applied to abstract ideas

• Logical, reasoning, and systematic thinking 

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

1. Emphasizes that development is fueled by interaction 

2. Believes language acquisition plays a substantial role in cognitive development

3. Private speech is used to plan/accomplish goals

Zone of Proximal Development: the space between what a learned can do supported vs unsupported

Private Speech: talking to oneself

Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

The states of morality, right, and wrong…

Stage 1: Punishment Orientation

• Decisions regarding right and wrong are based on what is punished

Stage 2: Reward Orientation 

• Right and wrong is determined by what is rewarded

Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl Orientation

• Good behavior is what pleases or helps others

• A desire for group approval  

Stage 4: Authority Orientation

• Right and wrong are determined by society's rules and laws

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation 

• Right and wrong are determined by society's rules

• Concern for public good

Stage 6: Individual Principles and Conscience Orientation 

• Right and wrong are determined by an individual set of ethics

Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

• Authoritative: high demandingness, high responsiveness

• Authoritarian: high demandingness, low responsiveness

• Permissive: low demandingness, high responsiveness

• Neglectful: low demandingness, low responsiveness