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How many people were estimated to live outside of their country of origin in 2023?
281 million people
3.6% of the world’s population
Why are most figures of migration estimated?
Lack of uniformity among countries
Makes it difficult to obtain accurate, reliable, and comparative statistics
Due to undocumented, illegal, migrations
According to Eurostat, which EU country had the largest net migration in 2013? By how much?
Italy
1.18 million net gain
In 2021, how many migrants from India were living in the UK?
839,000
In 2021, how many migrants from the UK were living in Australia?
1.3 million
In 2019, how many people born in the UK were living abroad? What are the main reasons for this?
Almost 1 million
Employment opportunities
Retirement
Family reunification
In 2022, how many foreign-born people were living in the UK? What proportion of them are female?
9.6 million
51%
How significant is ethnic diversity among immigrants in London?
Wide range of ethnic diversity
London has the largest number of immigrants (36.2%) in the UK
How many Syrians arrived in Italy by sea in 2014? Why?
42,000
Escaping conflict
According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), how many died during sea crossings in 2014?
Just over 3,000
What is a major migration route from Africa to Europe?
From Libyan ports to Italy’s southernmost point
According to Eurostat, how many people moved from one EU country to another in 2021? What was the statistic for Germany?
Approx 3.8 million
Germany = 422,000 migrants moved from another EU state to Germany
According to Eurostat, how many moved from one EU country to another outside the EU?
1.7 million
Why have there been such intra-regional (within) flows of migration?
Partly due to the Schengen Agreement allowing freedom of movement
EU expansion
Economic motivations
How has EU expansion increased intra-regional (within) migrant flows?
Increased potential number of migrants
EU countries have relatively high proportion of working age groups seeking employment
Attracted by higher wages elsewhere within the EU
What is the Poland → UK example of the economic motivations of intra-regional (within) migrant flows?
Polish accession to the EU in 2004
Stimulated new wave of migration to the UK
Polish migrants attracted by greater employment opportunities, higher wages, etc.
2013: 660,000 Poles living in the UK
What is the UK → Poland example of the economic motivations of intra-regional (within) migrant flows?
2013: 40,000 UK national migrants living in Poland
Typically business professionals
Potential Polish business market was attractive and open to innovation
What is the relationship between migration and level of development?
Can be positive process for stability, economic growth, and socio-economic change
Can cause inequalities in levels of development
What is the importance of migrant remittances?
For LIDCs and EDCs, remittances make up a greater proportion of GDP
Significant to their economy and development
Nepal = LIDC → remittances make up 28.8% of GDP
USA = AC → remittances make up less than 0.1% of GDP
How does migration promote stability?
Remittances → contribute to the economic stability of the recipient country
Returning migrants return with new ideas and values → contribute to peacebuilding
Youthful population → can create a more balanced age structure
How does migration promote economic growth?
Migrants stimulate local economies → creating new demands for food, clothing, and music
Migrants can fill skill gaps and shortages in the labour market
Migrant remittances → supplement household income → provide funds for local investment → stimulate local multiplier effect
How does migration promote development?
Skills and knowledge gained by returning migrants = beneficial to country of origin
How can global migration promote stability, growth, and development within and between countries?
The transfer of resources is significant in promoting stability, growth, and development
Global migration → diffusion of ideas, information, and values → social remittances back to country of origin
Values of democracy and other norms of behaviour
How can migration cause inequalities?
The better educated migrate elsewhere → brain drain
Migrant remittances → increase inequalities between families who receive them and families who don’t
How can migration cause injustices?
Social conflict can develop between host communities and new migrants
Immigrant populations concentrated in one area → pressure put on health, education, and housing
How can migration cause injustices?
Migrants = vulnerable to violations of their human rights due to forced labour, exploitation of women, and human trafficking
Treatment of asylum seekers → held in detention camps
How severe are refugee camps as areas of potential conflict?
The ‘Jungle’ refugee camp outside of Calais.
Contained over 3000 migrants in February 2016
Terrible conditions
Mostly unaccompanied young males
What is the result of globalisation on migration?
Intensified globalisation → increasing complexity of global migration → new migration corridors have opened
What new flows of inter-regional migration have emerged?
Migration of highly skilled workers from China, India, and Brazil → USA for higher salaries and better QOL.
Migration of workers from India, Bangladesh + Pakistan → oil-producing Gulf States and Saudi Arabia → attracted by demand for labour and potential for remittances.
What new flows of intra-regional migration have emerged?
Rapid increase of international migrant stock among ASEAN member states → migration of low-skilled, undocumented migrants seeking higher wages in fast growing economies.
Return migrants = high proportion of migrant flows within the EU → young workers have gained education and return to home country for prestigious position
What new flows of internal migration have emerged?
Internal migrant flows within EDCs (e.g. India) → created agglomerations of economic activity near large urban centres.
Rural-urban migration = reinforced.
What is the main reason for such a high concentration of young workers?
Economic → greater employment opportunities, higher wages, and possibility of remittance.
What is an example of young labour-driven migration?
Demand for workers in oil-producing countries, i.e. UAE.
Number of foreign-born residents in UAE increased dramatically from 2.45 million (2000) → 8.5 million (2019).
Flows dominated by young males working in construction → only 3.6% of migrants were employed in UAEs health sectors.
How has female migration increased in the 21st century?
Increase in the number of women and girl migrants
2019 = 51% of all migrants in developed countries were female.
Regionally, except for Africa and Asia, international migration has exceeded that of men.
How does greater status of women explain increased female migration?
Last 2 decades, growth due to greater independence, status, and freedom, and increasing importance as main income earners.
2013 = 101 countries in which the female international migrant stock was greater than that of men
Highest = Latvia (60.8%)
How does the significance of highly-skilled women explain increased female migration?
Growing significance in the migration of highly skilled women.
Tertiary migrants in OECD countries increased by 80%
Main destinations = countries with less discrimination in labour market + better female rights.
USA, Canada, UK, etc.
How have flows in the South-South corridor increased?
2013 = South-South corridor = 82.3 million migrants + 36% of global migrant stock.
What are the reasons for the increase of South-South corridors?
Labour migration → 2/3 of remittances were sent between southern countries (2013)
Bangladesh-India corridor has the world’s largest bilateral flow of 3.3 million migrants.
Increase in refugees → 2.3 million migrated from Afghanistan to Pakistan.
Number of fast-growing economies in the South
What is Burkina-Faso like?
Landlocked
LIDC
GDP of US$820 per head
What is the Ivory Coast like?
Lower-middle income country
World’s largest exporter of cocoa
GDP of US$1,1716 per head (2018)
How many migrants from Burkina Faso live in the Ivory Coast in 2018? Vice versa?
244,000 Ivorians living in Burkina Faso.
Almost 1 million Burkinabé’s living in the Ivory Coast
What are the reasons for migration to the Ivory Coast?
Employment opportunities + higher wages available due to cocoa and coffee plantations in the Ivory Coast.
Former French colonialism in both countries → shared language, currency, culture → made migration easier.
How many migrants are involved in the Myanmar to Thailand migrant corridor?
Largest ASEAN migrant corridor
1.9 million migrants.
What is the attraction of Thailand for migrants from Myanmar?
Southeast Asia’s fastest growing economy
Has shortages in agriculture, fishing, and construction industries.
Introduced a legal minimum daily wage of US$9 → ten times that of Myanmar
What are the reasons for migration from Myanmar to Thailand?
Employment opportunities + higher wage
Geographical proximity
Freer flow of labour
Many are refugees from the Myanmar government → escaping forced labour in government development projects, i.e. railway construction.
How has the number of refugees increased? What country was the main source in 2019?
Refugees worldwide increased from 15.7 million (2012) → 26 million (2019)
Syria = main source in 2019.
In 2019, how many asylum applications were submitted? Where?
2019 = 16.2 million asylum applications submitted
Majority in the Russian Federation, Germany, and the USA.
How many refugees are in Lebanon?
209.81 refugees per 1000 residents (2015)
What was the impact of the 2011 Syrian civil war?
Major factor in the increase of refugees
Led to internal displacement of 6.6 million people and over 5.6 million international refugees.
What was the impact of Syrian refugees on Lebanon?
Lebanon overwhelmed by Syrian refugees.
January 2015 = government-imposed need for entry visa → Syrians seeking work must be sponsored by a Lebanese individual or company.
What are the main reasons for large numbers of global refugees?
Effects of conflict → personal safety, loss, damage, etc.
Political persecution
Economic hardship
Impact of natural hazards
What is the significance of emigration for Pakistan?
Pakistan gov = pro-emigration
8 million Pakistanis working abroad → 96% of these are in the Gulf countries.
2017 = migrant remittances amounted to US$20 billion → important to socio-economic development
What does the Pakistan National Emigration Policy aim to do?
Promote export of Pakistani manpower abroad
Promote positive steps to encourage female participation in overseas employment.
Enhance the impact of remittances for development
What is the immigration policy of Canada?
Addresses skills gaps in the labour market → new policy = aimed at long-term requirements for engineers, IT specialists, and health-care workers.
Potential migrants = ranked on 1,200 point system.
What is Brazil’s current situation?
7th largest economy in the world + leading power in Latin America.
Migration has contributed to the economic growth and development.
What are the current patterns of immigration for Brazil?
Rise in international labour migrants attracted by the construction for the 2014 Football World Cup and 2016 Olympics
What are the current patterns of emigration for Brazil?
A slowing down of emigration of lower-skilled economic migrants to the USA
But increased emigration of highly-skilled workers to USA, Europe, and Japan.
What are the changes in immigration and emigration over time for Brazil?
Periods in which Europeans had been attracted to work in the agricultural sector - especially coffee cultivation.
USA = Brazil’s largest population overseas (mainly for economic reasons)
Many Brazilians of Japanese descent emigrated to Japan → encouraged by employment opportunities
What is the migrational relationship between Brazil and Portugal?
Long-standing relationship
Brazil was a former portuguese colony
Today, Portuguese government still gives special status to Brazilian migrants.
For economic migrants, Portugal has become a gateway to the EU
What is the migrational relationship between Brazil and the USA?
Low-skilled economic migrants working in the USA can remit a significant amount.
Returning migrants, having acquired skills and knowledge, are able to contributed to Brazilian development.
Highly skilled Brazilians are increasingly finding opportunities to work in the USA → strong links in education.
What is the migrational relationship between Brazil and Haiti?
2010 earthquake displaced 1.5 million Haitians + 2012 Hurricane Sandy
The National Immigration Council for Brazil enables Haitians to obtain visas relatively easy in Haiti → reduces vulnerability to trafficking networks.
Haitians attempting to escape political instability.
What is the impact of migration on Brazil’s economic development?
Waves of immigration contribute to growth in agriculture and manufacturing sectors.
Arrivals of highly skilled professionals have contributed to entrepreneurship and reducing gaps in the labour market.
Emigration to the USA, Japan, Portugal, etc. → remittances used by families for housing improvements and education → contributed to development at all scales.
What is the impact of migration on Brazil’s political stability?
Brazil has a stable and democratic political system
Is a leading member of Mercosur, G20, and OECD
Brazil = an important receiver of environmental refugees → stable government that accepts responsibility for their welfare and employment prospects → provide visas and work permits
What is the impact of migration on Brazil’s social equality?
UNESCO → there are inequalities in Brazilian society between ethnic groups and housing provision, education, employment, etc.
Brazilians of African descent = most affected.
Inequalities with poverty in rural areas or favelas.
Prejudice and discrimination within labour market against black and indigenous populations → impedes full economic, political, and social development.
In 2018, how many immigrants were living within the USA?
44.7 million immigrants
13.7% of the population.
25% from Mexico.
6% from China
6% from India
Why is the USA attractive to immigrants?
Employment opportunities for both low- and high-skilled workers.
Wage differentials and the opportunity to end remittances.
Importance of family reunification within the migration policy
In 2018, how many US citizens lived abroad?
4.8 million
What is the USAs migration policy?
The Immigration and Naturalisation Act
The body of law which governs current immigrant policy.
Allows annual worldwide limit of 675,000 permanent immigrants.
What is the USAs immigration policy based on?
Reunification of families → 480,000 visas available per year for family members to join US citizens.
Admission of migrants with valuable skills
Protecting refugees → 2018 = 45,000 visas
What is the migrational relationship between the USA and Mexico?
2018 = over 40 million Mexicans living in the USA
2010 = 738,000 Americans in Mexico.
Low-skilled Mexicans, many illegal, contribute to the US economy via working in agriculture, construction, etc.
Wages are much higher than in Mexico → provides opportunity for remittances → 2.2% of GDP.
What are the opportunities created by US international migration?
Immigrant populations take low-paid jobs which native-born Americans find unattractive.
Main employment of Mexicans immigrants = services (29%) and manufacturing (26%)
US immigration policy attracts highly-skilled professionals
2018 = main employment of immigrants from both China (54%) and India (76%) was in business and science.
What are the challenges created by US international migration?
An estimated 10.9 million unauthorised immigrants (4.9 million Mexicans) live in the USA)
Uneven process of integration of immigrant groups into US society.
Where immigration populations concentrate and numerous → this puts a strain on resources
Adding to demand for water supply in southern California
What is the economic situation in Laos?
Landlocked
LIDC
73% employed in agriculture.
Net migration loss is high = 1.1 migrants per 1000 population (2014)
What are the patterns of emigration and immigration for Laos in 2013?
1.29 million Laos-born migrants lived abroad → mainly in Thailand (930,000)
Only 20,000 foreign-born immigrants, mainly Vietnamese, lived in Loaos.
What are the main reasons for Laotian migration to Thailand?
Struggles with subsistence farming in laos
Daily minimum wage in Thailand is 300 baht compared to 80 baht in Laos
For many families, remittances = main source of income in Laos
Why do the Vietnamese migrate to Laos?
Employment opportunities in construction and mining industries
How are Laotian migrants vulnerable?
Laos = a source country for human trafficking
Young migrants = vulnerable to forced labour and sexual exploitation in Thailand → government policies have been ineffective in preventing this
How is the Laotian government working to reduce the vulnerability of migrants?
Work in cooperation with UN agencies.
The National Plan of Action for Human Trafficking led by the Lao PDR gov:
Prevention → awareness campaigns, education
Protection → reparation and reintegration for returning migrants, shelters for women
Prosecution → investigation of trafficking networks
What is the migrational relationship between Laos and Thailand?
Laos-Thailand Cooperation Committee has been established → Thailand has funded a large health service development and drug treatment centre in Laos.
Laos agreed to build rail links between Thailand and Vietnam, including high-speed rail link to China (2012) → opens Laos to development
What are the opportunities of international migration for Laos?
Laos-Thailand migration corridor → helps stimulate political and economic cooperation.
Bilateral relations with Vietnam → economic cooperation → Vietnam involved in over 400 investment projects in Laos
Migrant remittances very important → 22% of Laotian families live well below the poverty line
What are the challenges of international migration for Laos?
Most economic migrants from Laos are low-skilled → 21.4% are under 18 at their first migration.
Vulnerable to human trafficking, forced labour, and exploitation.
Loss of skilled labour to Thailand.
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