blood

blood

blood

• “essence of life” because the uncontrolled loss of it can result in death.

• transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products.

• type of connective tissue that consists of a liquid matrix containing cells and cell fragments.

plasma

• the liquid matrix in the blood

• 55% of total blood

• pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells

• 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other

1. 4-5 L

2. 5-6 L

total blood volume is about 1— in the average adult female and 2— L in the average adult male

8%

Blood makes up about — of total body weight.

1. albumin

2. globulins

3. fibrinogen

3 plasma proteins

albumin

• 58% of plasma proteins

• helps maintain water balance

globulins

• 38% of plasma proteins

• helps immune system

fibrinogen

• 4% plasma proteins

• aids in clot formation

serum

is plasma without the clotting factors

formed elements

• the cells and cell fragments in the blood are the —

• account for 45% of the total composition of blood

1. red blood cells (erythrocytes)

2. white blood cells (leukocytes)

3. platelets (thrombocytes)

the formed elements include:

hematopoiesis

• is the process that produces formed elements.

• In the fetus,— occurs in several tissues, including the liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow

• is confined primarily to red bone marrow, but some white blood cells are produced in lymphatic tissues.

hematopoietic stem cells or hemocytoblasts

• All the formed elements of blood are derived from a single population of cells called —

• These differentiate to give rise to different cell lines, each of which ends with the formation of a particular type of formed element.

erythrocytes or red blood cells

• are disk-shaped, with edges that are thicker than the center of the cell

• nucleus is lost during development

• transport 02 to

1. 120

2. 110

Red blood cells live for about 1.-— in males and 2.— days in females

hemoglobin

• One-third of a red blood cell’s volume is the pigmented protein —

• which is responsible for the cell’s red color

• transports 02

1. globin

2. heme

Each protein chain, called a 1.—, is bound to one 2.—

iron atom

each heme contains one —

oxyhemoglobin

hemoglobin with an 02 attached

erythropoietin

• Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to increase production of the hormone —

• — stimulates red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes

macrophages

Old red blood cells are removed from blood by — in spleen and liver

bilirubin

• heme is converted to —

• is taken up by liver and released into small intestine as part of bile

leukocytes or white blood cells

• remaining 5% of the volume of the formed elements consists of —

• lack hemoglobin

• larger than erythrocytes

• Functions: fight infections and remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

1. granulocytes

2. agranulocytes

2 types of white blood cells

granulocytes

there are multiple types of white blood cells. Those containing large cytoplasmic granules are —

agranulocytes

type of white blood cells that has very small granules that cannot be seen easily with the light microscope are —

1. neutrophils

2. eosinophils

3. basophils

3 kinds of granulocytes

neutrophils

• most common type of white blood cells, have small cytoplasmic granules that stain with both acidic and basic dyes

• usually remain in the blood for a short time (10–12 hours), move into other tissues,

• phagocytize microorganisms and other foreign substances

basophils

• the least common of all white blood cells, contain large cytoplasmic granules that stain blue or purple with basic dyes

• release histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation

• also release heparin, which prevents the formation of clot

eosinophils

• are involved in inflammatory responses associated with allergies and asthma.

• In addition, chemicals from— are involved in destroying certain worm parasites.

1. lymphocytes

2. monocytes

two kinds of agranulocytes:

lymphocytes

• are the smallest of the white blood cells

• production of antibodies and other chemicals.

• The antibodies and other chemicals destroy microorganisms, contribute to allergic reactions, and regulate the immune system.

• several different types (T cells and B cells)

monocytes

• are the largest of the white blood cells

• After — leave the blood and enter tissues, they enlarge and become macrophages

• can break down phagocytized foreign substances and present the processed substances to lymphocytes, causing activation of the lymphocytes

platelets

• are minute fragments of cells, each consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane

• play an important role in preventing blood loss.

megakaryocytes

platelets are produced in the red bone marrow from large cells called —

1. vascular spasm

2. platelet plug formation

3. blood clotting

when a blood vessel is damaged, loss of blood is minimized by three processes:

vascular spasm

• is an immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that results when smooth muscle within the wall of the blood vessel contracts.

• This constriction can close small blood vessels completely and stop the flow of blood through them.

platelet plug

• is an accumulation of platelets that can seal up a small break in a blood vessel

• formation of — is very important in maintaining the integrity of the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system because small tears occur in the smaller vessels and capillaries many times each day.

blood clotting or coagulation

• blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel

• When a blood vessel is severely damaged,—-, results in the formation of a clot

clot

is a network of threadlike protein fibers, called fibrin, that traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid.

clotting factors

• The formation of a blood clot depends on a number of proteins found within plasma, called —

• s are inactive and do not cause clotting. Following injury, however, the clotting factors are activated

prothrombinase

(clotting factor) is formed and acts upon prothrombin

prothrombin

is switched to its active form thrombin

thrombin

activated fibrinogen into its active form fibrin

fibrin

forms a network that traps blood (clots)

anticoagulants

• which prevent clotting factors from forming clots under normal conditions.

• For example, antithrombin and heparin

clot retraction

• After a clot has formed, it begins to condense into a more compact structure through a process known as —

• serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot

• helps enhance healing

fibrinolysis

• as the damaged tissue is repaired, clots are dissolved by a process called

• plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)

transfusion

is the transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another

infusion

is the introduction of a fluid other than blood, such as a saline or glucose solution, into the blood.

transfusion reactions

characterized by clumping or rupture of blood cells and clotting within blood vessels

antigens

molecules on surface of erythrocytes

antibodies

proteins in plasma that bind to specific antigens

blood groups

The antigens on the surface of red blood cells have been categorized into

ABO blood group system

is used to categorize human blood. In this blood group system,

1. type a antigen

2. type b antigen

there are two types of antigens that may appear on the surface of the red blood cells

type a blood

has type A antigens

type b blood

has type b antigens

type ab blood

has both types of antigens

type o blood

has neither a nor b antigens

anti-B antibodies

Plasma from type A blood contains —, which act against type B antigens

anti-A antibodies

plasma from type B blood contains —-, which act against type A antigens.

Type AB blood plasma

has neither type of antibody

type O blood plasma

has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

type O

are universal donors because they have no antigens

type A

can receive A and O blood

type B

can receive B and O blood

Type AB

are universal recipients, can receive A, B, AB or O blood

Rh Blood Group

• Another important blood group is the — so named because it was first studied in the rhesus monkey

• Rh positive means you have Rh antigens

• 95 to 85% of the population is Rh

• Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from mother to fetus

hemolytic disease of newborn

• occurs when mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs

• can be fatal to fetus

• prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM which
  contains antibodies against Rh antigens

blood typing

determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of a blood sample

complete blood count

• is an analysis of blood that provides much useful information.

• consists of a red blood cell count, hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements, and a white blood cell count

1. 4.6–6.2 million

2. 4.2–5.4 million

normal red blood count (RBC) for a male is 1—- red blood cells per microliter (μL) of blood; for a female, a normal RBC count is 2.— per μL of blood

anemia

abnormally low hemoglobin measurement is an indication of

hematocrit

The percentage of the total blood volume that is composed of red blood cells is the

white blood count

• measures the total number of white blood cells in the blood.

• There are normally 5000–9000 white blood cells per microliter of blood

leukopenia

• is a lower than normal WBC resulting from decreased production or destruction of the red marrow.

• caused by Radiation, drugs, tumors, viral infections, or a deficiency of the vitamins folate or B1

leukocytosis

• is an abnormally high WBC.

• Bacterial infections often cause — by stimulating neutrophils to increase in number

leukemia

cancer of the red marrow characterized by abnormal production of one or more of the white blood cell types, can cause leukocytosis. However, the white blood cells do not function normally.

1. platelet count

2. prothrombin time measurement

two common ways to measure the blood’s ability to clot:

platelet count

a normal — is 250,000–400,000 platelets per microliter of blood.

prothrombin time measurement

calculates how long it takes for the blood to start clotting, which is normally 9–12 seconds

differential white blood count

• determines the percentage of each of the five kinds of white blood cells

• neutrophils account for 60–70%, lymphocytes 20–25%, monocytes 3–8%, eosinophils 2–4%, and basophils 0.5–1% of all white blood cells.