POSC 2100 (Socrates/Plato, Machiavelli, and Hobbes)

The “Political”

Politics arises where there an inescapable pressures to act collectively and we must decide how to do so, in ways that (1) transform our situation and (2) affect others who may disagree with us

• Spaces of transformation (e.g., debating, campaigning, protesting, voting, legislating, etc.), changing the status quo

• Centred on conflict/the potential of conflict. Standing to gain and to lose can make potential political enemies

• Not synonymous with power, but focused on engaging activities that we cannot simply walk away from, for bridging perspectives

Sophist

A paid teacher of philosophy and rhetoric

• Often foreigners who would train people in their ways to deceive and manipulate

• Given the reputation of being deceiving mercenaries

T or F: Socrates was born into a wealthy, educated family and had always longed to pursue politics

False

Socrates’ family was somewhat wealthy, but not well-educated. Socrates grew up listening to sophists and learned but did not want to train the debate skills of the rich, or have much to do with politics. He pursued his father’s masonry career and embraced a life of poverty to devote himself to philosophy

T or F: Plato followed and recorded Socrates, everything we know comes from him

True

Elenchus

A conversational dialectic to pose questions, solicit answers, then refute those answers

The 2 goals of elenchus

1. Arrive at claims that can withstand scrutiny

2. Encourage personal and moral transformation by interrogating oneself and others

The 3 charges against Socrates

1. Sacrilegious: Accused of not believing in the gods

2. Cultist: Accused of introducing new gods

3. Sophist: Accused of corrupting the youth

“‘Socrates is an evil-doer, […] he makes the worse appear the better cause; and he teaches the aforesaid doctrines to others.’“

Socrates

“…I mean when they told you to be upon your guard, and not to let yourselves be deceived by the force of my eloquence"“

Socrates

“…all I do is go about, persuading you young and old alike, not to care for your bodies or for your wealth so intensely as for the greatest possible well-being for your souls“

Socrates

“The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our separate ways — I to die, and you to live. Which is better God only knows“

Socrates

Why are stakes are high when it comes to politics?

It involves making transformative decisions that create winners and losers, such that conflict is likely

What was the main message of Socrates’ trial?

Those with power will bend or break the rules to protect their interests — speaking truth to power is dangerous, even in a democracy that protects speech

The Simile of the Beast

Best way to liken a crowd is treating them like a wild animal (easy to provoke and quick to attack). Political leaders and sophists act like animal tamers, directing the chaotic energy to whatever they choose

T or F: Sophists trained political elites of Athens to be wise and good in their rhetoric

False

• Political elites just studied a crowd long enough to manipulate them — tell them what they wanted to hear in flowery language

• Sophists were concerned with controlling the crowds, what they think was wise and good — was not objectively wise nor good — it’s what kept the crowd at bay and is the standard in which we judge goodness here

The Tripartite Soul

Human beings display 3 different kinds of desires:

1. Spirited: Part of the soul that desires glory

2. Rational: Part of the soul that desires knowledge

3. Appetitive: Part of the soul that desires pleasures

According to Plato, what is the goal?

Harmony

According to Plato, how can learn to control our worst impluses?

• Having laws and education that encourages moderation

• Pursuing jobs that make us “happy“ because we’re equipped to do them

Who believes that: People have different natural aptitudes (based on their soul) and so are naturally suited to play different roles in society?

Plato

Kallipolis (regime)

Rule by the wise (rational soul)

Timocracy (regime)

Rule by courageous few (spirited soul)

Oligarchy (regime)

Rule by wealthy few (appetitive soul)

Democracy (regime)

Rule by poor many (also appetitive part of soul)

• Deformed form of an oligarchy (according to Plato)

According to Plato, how do democratic revolutions start?

Democratic revolutions only spread the disease of appetite from a few wealthy to many poor, all driven by money and greed

Tyranny (regime)

Rule by any means necessary. No laws

“Democracy … arises whenever the poor win the day, killing some of the opposite part, expelling others and admitting the remainder to an equal participation in regime and ruling“

Plato (via Socrates)

“[T]he power of the rulers in an oligarchic city is … wholly due to their great wealth […] They hope, by purchasing the possessions […] and by lending money […] to make themselves still richer“

Plato (via Socrates)

“[H]e lives from day to day … in the gratification of casual appetites […] he takes part in public affairs, and starting up, speaks and acts according to the impulse of the moment … there is no order or constraining rule in his life“

Plato (via Socrates)

“[I]s it not the inevitable destiny of such a man [the leader] to be destroyed by his enemies, or to become a tyrant [?]“

Plato (via Socrates)

“[A] real ship’s captain must of necessity be familiar with the seasons of the year, the stars in the sky, the winds, and everything to do with his art“

Plato

To truly be captain of a ship, one must need to know how to do something much higher — know how to navigate

Why was Machiavelli’s The Prince one of the most (in)famous handbooks for how to “steer the ship” of the state?

• At the time, considered ruthless and sociopathic

• Book was banned by the Pope ~1559

Machiavelli offered a _____ framework that assumed morality had no place in politics, and laws and norms can be bent to suit the needs of the political moment (everything on the table)

A. Optimistic

B. Idealist

C. Realist

D. Liberalist

C. Realist

What were Machiavelli’s main critiques of Plato?

1. Machiavelli argued that everything should be on the table when rulers consolidate power

2. Machiavelli had no time for Plato’s Republic

“[Y]ou will discover in it my great desire that you should attain greatness [and] you will [also] see how undeservedly I suffer great and continued bad fortune“

Machiavelli

“Many [philosophers] I have pictured republics and principalities which in fact have never been known or seen, ignoring the great indifference between how one ought to live and how one lives in fact“

Machiavelli

“A man who wishes to act on the basis of his declaration about morality will soon meet with destruction among those with no such scruples“

Machiavelli

3 main realist assumptions

1. “Is“ not “Ought“: We must attend to how people act rather than how they should act

2. Selfishness: We must recognize that people are rationally self-interested

3. Contingency: We must disregard claims about justice and truth being timeless

“Is“ not “Ought“ (1/3 main realist assumptions)

We must attend to how people act rather than how they should act

• Morals do not matter — people will behave in immoral ways

Selfishness (1/3 main realist assumptions)

We must recognize that people are rationally self-interested

• Protect oneself when push comes to shove

• People are always making calculations on when/if to betray

Contingency (1/3 main realist assumptions)

We must disregard claims about justice and truth being timeless

• What is acceptable is circumstantial — everything is on the table (no hard and fast rules)

• Disregard what people say is moral, look at the practical effects

“[A]ll men […] are judged in terms of those qualities that bring them either blame of praise“

Machiavelli

What does Machiavelli mean by: “[I]t is necessary that a prince who wishes to hold his own know how to do wrong“?

Win praise while avoiding setback. One doesn't have to do the right thing

According to Machiavelli, what is the basis of power?

Good armies & good laws

• Project power without relying on others; because if so, one must cooperate and defend

• Prepare for the worst — betrayal of allies, lack of army and satisfaction amongst the people

• If one has good laws and people are happy (no threat of rebellion), then even without an army, you have protection (no betrayal)

What is Machiavelli’s advice after a successful conquer of a state?

Kill potential threats early

• Ask oneself: What kind of state has one conquered? Does the state share the same language, religion, and culture (learn to manage differences)? Are members of the old elite still in the city? Are they supporters or rivals?;

• Engage in mass executions (make sure no one is alive that will rebel);

• And/or burn city to ground — level the city

Targeted cruelty can lead to political peace and stability (and if you do this, do it all at once; if not, always keep a knife in hand)

“[M]en ought to be either well treated or crushed […] any injury that is done … ought to be of such a kind that one need not be in fear of revenge“

Machiavelli

“[I]njuries ought to be inflected all at one time, so that, being tasted less, they offend less“

Machiavelli

According to Machiavelli, what does “steering the ship” require?

Political Realism: Politics is a distinct sphere of activity were ordinary moral norms do not apply and laws can be broken if necessary

“I hold the position that fortune manages only half our actions, and still allows us to direct the other half“

Machiavelli

The Goddess Fortūna

• Randomly dispensed good and bad luck according to change

• Traditionally, Fortūna (in Roman Latin), is depicted as blindfolded, holding the rudder of a ship. She can steer you in any direction, without knowing where she’s going, following the winds of fate

“[F]ortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under control it is necessary to beat and mistreat her [to master her conquer her by force]“

Machiavelli

Virtù

The qualities of the hero who stands up to the gods/a ruler must possess to control fortune

• Courage, cunning, prowess, strength, fortitude

• Set of character traits to independently seize opportunities and prevent misfortune

Traits of Fortūna

The goddess who determines the hero’s destiny

• Fickle, heartless, dangerous, and inscrutable

The “Beast-Man”

Virtù requires the leader to combine the human and the animal. When acting as a beast, they should be both fox and lion

• Two ways to fight: Inside and outside of the law

• Fox: Planning, scheming, strategically neutral

• Lion: Fighting

• Balance between when to plan and when to fight

Who is given as an example of a living beast-man?

King Ferdinand of Spain

What are the 3 inversions of morals?

1. Generosity vs. miserliness

2. Mercy vs. cruelty

3. Lying vs. keeping your word

Generosity vs. miserliness (1/3 inversion of morals)

“There is nothing that destroys so rapidly as generosity […] A prince should guard, above all things, against being despised and hated and generosity leads you to both”

• Creates an expectation if you run out of money (and if people are getting more/less)

• Will one need to raise money (i.e., taxes)? Unpopular, seen as greedy and like robbery

• Generosity/favours can backfire

• As you exercise it more, you lose power to do so

Mercy vs. cruelty (1/3 inversion of morals)

“[P]rince ought to desire to be considered merciful and not cruel. […] [But a] new prince … will find it impossible to avoid a reputation for cruelty“ — Machiavelli

• Mercy might be universally good, but in politics can be seen as weakness

• Use mercy with cruelty to create public image

Lying vs. keeping your word (1/3 inversion of morals)

“[I]t is necessary to know how to disguise this characteristic well, and to be great pretender and dissembler“

• Usefulness of spectacle

• Fox strategy: Lie and break promises (because one would be naïve to think they wouldn’t do the same)

• Know how to disguise well

According to Machiavelli, “is it better to be loved than feared, or better to be feared than loved”?

Feared

• Because love is unpredictable

• Men judge more by eye than by hand: Everyone sees what you appear to be, few know who you are

Last component of virtù

Appear with qualities that people admire but don’t actually have them — they prevent you from being a beast man

Plato defines timocracy as …

A. A system of government where the timid rule

B. A system of government where the poor many rule

C. A system of government where a tyrant rules

D. None of the above

D. None of the above

Rule by courageous few

According to Machiavelli, which would it be prudent (/wise) for the prince not to do?

A. Ally with stronger state to ensure victory over an enemy

B. Execute your rivals swiftly and all at once to prevent rebellion

C. Appear religious, humane, generous, and pious

D. Break a promise to a stronger state even if you can get away with it

A. Ally with stronger state to ensure victory over an enemy

“… what opinion he has of his fellow-subjects, when he rides armed; of his fellow citizens, when he locks his doors … Does he not there as much accuse mankind of his actions, as I do by my words?”

Hobbes

What are similarities and differences between Machiavelli and Hobbes?

Similarities

• Breaks with the classic tradition which focuses on character and what makes a “good life”

• Ruler must learn how not to be good

• If a ruler can’t be loved, it’s essential that they be feared but not hated

• Fear can be productive

• Wrote manuals

Differences

• Machiavelli’s audience: Prince Lorenzo

• Hobbes’ audience: The common man/everyone else

• Hobbes argues “natural laws” → humans “as they really are”

“My mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear”

Hobbes

What did Hobbes believe was the relation between politics and science?

Politics was “science” just the same as pure mathematics and geometry

• There are certain natural patterns to human behavior that, if demonstrated in the form of proof, could be used to settle disputes over how best to govern ourselves

Leviathan

A sea monster (serpent) referenced in several religious texts

What about people would Hobbes and Plato disagree on?

That people have natural aptitudes or souls. Hobbes believes there is a common brute equality

According to Hobbes, what are we [humans] really like?

Mechanical beings — nothing special about us, no souls, just biological systems/matter in motion that require food and want to survive. We are all roughly the same and desire the same things

Moral Ideas (Hobbes)

We call what is good as pleasurable for us, and what is bad as painful for us

According to Hobbes, what makes us unpredictable and have the capacity for power?

Ego/self-interest: Desire and attraction to things we want, but if we observe how humans realistically treat one another, we treat one another with contempt (not hatred, just disregard)

“I put for a general inclination of all mankind a perpetual and restless desire of power after power”

Hobbes

“Read thyself […] he shall read and know what are the thoughts and passions of all other men upon like occasions”

Hobbes

State of Nature (Hobbes)

Free to do anything, fulfill any desires as long as you’re physically capable of doing so. Nothing, legally, morally, etc. can constrain you

“War consists not in battle only […] but in tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently known”

Hobbes

“In such a condition, there is […] no society and which is worse of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor nasty, brutish, and short”

Hobbes

T or F: The State of Nature is just a hypothetical (Hobbes)?

True

• It illustrates how much of our social orders depend on our willingness to trust one another

Right of Nature (Hobbes)

The right to do whatever is necessary to preserve and sustain one’s life in a State of Nature without government

Law of Nature (Hobbes)

The rational pattern of thought that all humans would display when thinking about their own self-interest and survival

“Therefore, notwithstanding the laws of nature … if there be no power erected or not great enough for our security, every man will, and may lawfully rely on his own strength and art for caution”

Hobbes

Strong State (Hobbes)

Is necessary to overcome the endemic trust issues that self-interested people will naturally have, such that they can begin to coordinate and cooperate

“[F]inal cause, end, or design of men […] is the foresight of their own preservation […] and observation of those laws of nature […] in sum, doing to others as we would be done to“

Hobbes

The Social Contract as a Covenant (i.e., Promise)

Made between everyone to mutually transfer their natural rights to a neutral third party that has the sole authority to create laws and administer justice

The Social Contract (Hobbes)

Invests all our rights of nature, except the right to self-preservation, into a single artificial entity, who, like an actor, is authorized to impersonate us, so that we own whatever we do

Natural Person

When they [the words] are considered his own

Feigned or Artificial Person

When they [the words] are considered as representing the words and actions of another

“[W]hen the actor makes a covenant by authority he binds thereby the author no less than if he made it himself“

Hobbes

Reciprocal Covenants (terms among individuals)

• Each individual transfers rights on condition of protection

• Individuals promise one another each other’s natural rights to invest them into one artificial person (a representative)

T or F: In terms of reciprocal covenants, the relation between the individuals and a sovereign is mutual (Hobbes)

False

• The relation between the individuals and a sovereign, is not it mutual/reciprocal

• Sovereign is not a part of the social contract, a creator of one, but not part of it

• Sovereign only agreed to be an actor on our behalf to protect us

T or F: The Sovereign has almost unlimited authority (Hobbes)

True

• The signatories of the Social Contract do not make an agreement with the Sovereign — they agree among themselves to transfer their (natural) rights to the Sovereign

• Whatever the Sovereign does is “authorized“ by us in the sense that we are the authors, since they speak and act in our name

“For the right men to have by nature to protect themselves, when none else can protect them, can by no convenant be relinquished … The end of obedience is protection“

Hobbes

“As for other liberties they depend on the silence of the law. In cases where the sovereign has prescribed no rule, there the subject has the liberty to do or forbear, according to his own discretion“

Hobbes

_____ was killed, ushering in a decade of republic government before the Medici return.

A. Prince Lorenzo

B. Father Girolamo Savonarola

C. William III, Prince of Orange

D. Socrates

B. Father Girolamo Savonarola