Bio Psych Exam 2

Psychoactive drug

Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior; used to manage neuropsychological illness, but also may be taken recreationally.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Developmental disorder characterized by core behavioral symptoms including impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention.

agonist

Substance that enhances neurotransmitter function.

antagonist

Substance that blocks neurotransmitter function.

tolerance

Decrease in response to a drug with the passage of time.

sensitization

Learned behavior in which repeated administration of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response.

zoopharmacognosy

Behavior in which nonhuman animals self-medicate.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Range of physical and intellectual impairments observed in some children following significant alcohol exposure during gestation.

amphetamine

Synthetic compound that increases the neurotransmitter dopamine in the synaptic cleft by reversing the dopamine transporter.

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Idea that excess dopamine activity causes symptoms of schizophrenia.

major depression

Mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disruption of normal eating habits, sleep disturbance (e.g., insomnia), a general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide.

monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor

Drug that blocks the enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmitters as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

tricyclic

Drug, characterized by its three-ring chemical structure, that blocks 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) reuptake transporter proteins.

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

Drug that blocks 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) reuptake into the presynaptic terminal; most commonly used to treat depression.

competitive inhibitor

A drug that competes with another drug for a receptor site; an example is naloxone, which acts quickly to block opioid action by competing with the opioid for binding sites.

disinhibition theory

Explanation holding that alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the brain’s frontal cortex, which controls judgment, while sparing subcortical structures responsible for more innate behaviors, such as desire.

behavioral myopia

“Nearsighted” behavior displayed under the influence of alcohol, wherein local and immediate cues become prominent; remote cues and consequences are ignored

withdrawal symptom

Any of the physical and psychological behaviors displayed when drug use ends.

addiction

A complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse.

psychomotor activation

Increased behavioral and cognitive activity so that at certain levels of consumption, the person using a drug feels energetic and in control.

wanting-and-liking theory

Explanation holding that both wanting and liking mediated by separate neural systems underlie addiction; also called incentive sensitization theory.

alpha rhythm

Regular brain wave pattern in an electroencephalogram with a frequency ranging from 7 to 11 hz; found in most people when they are relaxed with eyes closed

behavioral neuroscience

the study of the biological bases of behavior

cerebral voltammetry

technique used to identify the concentrations of specific chemicals in the brain

chemogenetics

transgenic technique that combines genetics and synthetic drugs to activate targeted cells in living tissue

compensation

following brain damage, the neuroplastic ability to modify behavior from the demonstrated prior to the damage

computational neuroscience

quantitative approach using biologically plausible mathematical models to mimic the development, structure, physiology, and cognitive abilities of the nervous system in an effort to better understand them; mathematical neuroscience

computed tomography

x-ray technique that produces a static three-dimensional image (called a CT scan) of the brain in cross-section

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

neurological technique in which electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to produce or facilitate behavior or give relief from psychiatric conditions

diffusion tensor imaging

MRI method that detects the directional movement of water molecules as a means of imaging nerve fiber pathways in the brain

electrocorticography (ECoG)

Graded potentials recorded with electrodes placed directly on the surface of the brain.

event-related potentials

the graded potentials on dendrites that a sensory stimulus triggers

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging technique that measures brain activity indirectly by detecting changes associated with the ratio of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood; often used to measure cerebral blood flow during cognitive testing or resting.

functional near-infared spectroscopy

Noninvasive technique that gathers light transmitted through cortical tissue to image oxygen consumption; a form of optical tomography.

induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)

cells created from the body’s tissues that can differentiate into nearly all cell types found in the body

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

technique that produces a static three-dimensional brain image by passing a strong magnetic field through the brain, followed by a radio wave, then measuring a radiofrequency signal emitted from hydrogen atoms

magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

magnetic resonance imaging method that uses the hydrogen proton signal to determine the concentration of brain metabolites

magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

magnetic potentials recorded from detectors placed outside the skull

microdialysis

technique used to determine the chemical constituents of extracellular fluid in freely moving animals

neuroethics

Discipline concerned with the ethics of medical and biological research, which also incorporates the meaning of being human from the perspective of philosophy of mind, psychology, theology, and law.

neuropsychology

study of the relationships between brain function and behavior in humans

optogenetics

combines genetics and light to control targeted cells (excite or inhibit) in living tissue

organoid

artificially grown, simplified, three-dimensional, miniature versions of organ parts, including brain tissue

personalized medicine

a medicine model whereby treatment is tailored to the individual

place cells

hippocampal neurons maximally responsive to a specific location in an animal’s environment

positron emission tomography (PET)

imaging technique that detects changes in blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen or glucose; used to analyze the metabolic activity of neurons

resting state fMRI (rs-fMRI)

magnetic resonance imaging method that measures changes in oxygenation levels when the individual is resting (not engaged in a specific task)

stereotaxic apparatus

surgical instrument that holds the head to permit a researcher or neurosurgeon to target a specific part of the brain

striatum

caudate nucleus and putamen of the basal ganglia

synthetic biology

design and construction of biological devices, systems, and machines not found in nature

transcranial magnetic stimulation

procedure in which a magnetic coil is placed over the skill to stimulate the underlying brain; used either to induce behavior or to disrupt ongoing behavior

amblyopia

condition in which vision in one eye is reduced as a result of disuse; usually caused by a failure of the two eyes to look in the same direction

androgen

class of hormones that stimulate or control masculine characteristics, and play a role in levels of sexual interest in humans

anencephaly

failure of the forebrain to develop

apoptosis

genetically programmed cell death

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

the range of cognitive symptoms, from mild to sever, that characterize autism; severe symptoms include grately impaired social interaction, a bizarre and narrow range of interests, marked abnormalities in language and communication, and fixed, repetitive motions

cell adhesion molecules

cell manufactures molecules that either lie on the target cell’s surface or are secreted into the intercellular space. Some provide a surface to which growth cones can adhere or attract/repel growth cones

chemoaffinity hypothesis

proposal that neurons or their axons and dendrites are drawn toward a signaling chemical that indicates the correct pathway

critical period

developmental window during which some event has a long-lasting influence on the brain; sensitive period

default network

brain network of interaction regions of the frontal and parietal lobes that have highly correlated activity when a person is not engaged in some targeted activity

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)

Brodmann areas 9 and 46; makes reciprocal connections with the posterior parietal cortex and superior temporal sulcus; responsible for selecting behavior and movement with respect to temporal space

estrogen

variety of sex hormones responsible for the distinguishing female characteristics

filopod

process at the end of a developing axon that reaches out to search for a potential target or to sample the intercellular environment

glioblast

product of a progenitor cell that rises to different types of glial cells

growth cone

growing tip of an axon

growth spurt

sporadic period of sudden growth that lasts for a finite amount of time

imprinting

formation of an attachment by an animal to one or more objects or animals at a critical period in development

masculinization

process by which exposure to androgen (male sex hormones) alters the brain and stimulates an individual to develop male reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics

netrin

chemoattractive tropic molecule that guides axon growth

neural darwinism

hypothesis that competition among neurons for connections and metabolic resources is like natural selection in organisms

neural plate

primitive neural tissue that gives rise to the neural tube

neural stem cells

self-renewing multipotential cell that gives rise to any of the different types of neurons and glia in the nervous system

neural tube

structure in the early stage of the brain development from which the brain and spinal cord develop

neuroblast

product of a progenitor cell that gives rise to any of the different types of neurons

neurotropic factor

chemical compound that supports growth and differentiation in developing neurons and may act to keep certain neurons alive in adulthood

progenitor cell

cell derived from a stem cell that migrates and produces a neuron or a glial cell

psychobiotics

treatment that uses live bacteria or compounds to enhance the growth of gut bacteria

radial glial cells

path making cell that a migrating neuron follows to its appropriate destination

semaphorins

class of chemorepulsive molecules that deflect axons from inappropriate regions

subventricular zone

lining of neural stem cells surround the ventricles in adults

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

unexplained death while asleep of a seemingly healthy infant younger than the age of 1 year old

testosterone

sex hormone secreted by the testes and responsible for the emergence of typically masculine characteristics

tropic molecule

signaling molecules that attract or repel growth cones

blind spot

retinal region where axons forming the optic nerve leave the eye and where blood vessels enter and leave; has no photoreceptors and is thus said to be blind

blob

region in the area V1 that contains color-sensitive neurons, as revealed by staining for cytochrome oxidase

color constancy

phenomenon whereby an object’s perceived color tends to remain constant relative to other colors, regardless of changes in illumination

cone

photoreceptors specialized for color and high visual acuity

cortical column

anatomic organization that represents a functional unit six cortical layers deep and approx. .5mm across, perpendicular to the cortical surface

dorsal stream

visual processing pathway from region V1 to the parietal lobe; guides actions relative to objects

extrastriate (secondary visual) cortex

visual cortical areas in the occipital lobe outside the striate cortex

facial agnosia

face blindness; inability to recognize faces; prosopagnosia

fovea

central region of the retina specialized for high visual acuity; its receptive fields are at the center of the eye’s visual field

geniculostriate system

projections from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex

homonymous hemianopia

blindness of the entire left or right visual field

luminance contrast

amount of light an object reflects relative to its surrounding

magnocellular cells

large visual system neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus that are sensitive to the light, and that mediate light and dark perception and movement

ocular dominance columns

functional column in the visual cortex that is maximally responsive to information coming from one eye

opponent-process

explanation of color vision that emphasizes the importance of the apparently opposing color pairs: red versus green and blue versus yellow

optic ataxia

deficit in the visual control of reaching and other movements

optic chiasm

junction of the optic nerves, one from each eye, at which the axons from the nasal halves of the retinas cross to the brain’s opposite side