AP Psychology Unit 1

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation

structuralism

promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

functionalism

James, influenced by Darwin’ explored how metal and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

experimental psychology

the study of behaviors and thinking using experimental method

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

By seeking to measure “atoms of the mind” who established the first psychology laboratory?

Wilhem Wundt

Who proposed that nerve pathways allowed for reflexes?

Decartes

Who said the mind is a “blank slate” to help explain the impact experience has on shaping someone

John Locke

What best describes research typical of Wundt’s first lab?

Measuring the reaction time between hearing a sound and pressing a button

What statement would John Watson most likely agree with?

Psychology should focus on observable behavior

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biology to psychology to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biology, psychoogy, and social-cultural levels of anaylsis

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes ( some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, physiological psychologists, or bio-psychologists)

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavioral and mind, using principles of natural selection

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of someone’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

social psychlogy

scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one anotherapp

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

application of psychology concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in the workplace

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiartry

branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

positive psychology

scientific study of human functioning with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help people and communities thrive

community psychology

branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environment and how social institutions affect people and groups

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving =, rather than simply rereading information. sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

What perspective is most likely to address how encoding, storing, and retrieval of information, might alter our thoughts?

Cognitive

Who would likely study the interaction of people, machines, and physical environment?

A human factor psychologist

Psychiatrists differ from psychologists in that…

They are medical doctors licensed to prescribe medicine

What might a humanistic psychologist working with some poets ask?

“How can we get them to reach their highest potential?

Betsy works in human resources. She plans training sessions, recruitment and works on boosting morale. Besty is most likely a(n)

I/O psychologist

hindsight bias (i-knew-it-all-along)

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

critical thinking

thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, asses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidences, and assesses conclusions

After the student council election, a friend tells you he has known for weeks who would be elected president. What does this illustrate?

Hindsight bias

While taking a standardized test with randomly scrambled answers, you notice the last 4 answers are “c”. What’s true concerning the probability of the next “c” answer?

It is unaffected by previous answers. It’s as likely to be “c” as any other answer

What do we call the tendency to exaggerate the correctness of accuracy of our beliefs and predictions prior to testing?

overconfidence

What’s an example of hindsight bias?

Mary can’t recognize a definition on a flashcard. After flipping the card repeatedly, she tells herself she knew what she was doing all along

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviros/events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedure (operations) used in a research study

\-ex: human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique where one person or group i studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behaviors in naturally situation, without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

\-note: except for national studies, this doesn’t refer to whole population

random sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Why is an operational definition necessary when reporting research findings?

An operational definition allows others to replicate the procedure

A researcher looking for gender differing in 3 year olds observe a preschool class and records how many minutes children of each gender play with dolls. She then compares the 2 sets of numbers. Which type of descriptive research is she conducting?

Naturalistic observation

What’s best investigated by means of a survey?

Are students more likely to be politically liberal/conservative?

What is a testable prediction that drives reserach known as?

A hypothesis

Researchers are interested in finding out if winning Congressional candidates display more positive facial expressions than losing candidates. the researchers attend political debates and record how frequently each candidate displays positive facial expression. Which research method are the researcher using?

naturalistic observation

Someone with exceptional memory is identified. She’s capable of recalling major events, the weather, what she did on any given date. What research method is being used if a psychological conducts an in depth investigation including questionnaires, brain scans, and memory tests?

Case study

What’s most important when conducting survey reserach?

Choosing a Representative sample

Correlation

measure of the extent to which two variables change together which leads to how well either variable predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical, index of the relationship between 2 variables (from -1.0 to 1.0)

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables. amount of scatter suggests strength of correlation (little scatter = higher correlation)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

research method where an investigator manipulates one or more factors (iv) to observe the effect on some behavioral or mental process (dv) by random assignment of participants, experimenter aims to control other relevant variables

experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment, (the iv)

control group

the group not exposed to the iv; contrasts with experimental group and serves as a comparison to evaluate the effect of treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance which leads to minimizing preexisting differences between the diferent groups

double-blind procedure

experimental process where both research participants and research staff are blind about whether research participants have received the treatment/placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations; any effect on behaviors caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

experimental factor that’s manipulated; variable whose effects are being studiedcon

confounding variable

factor besides iv that might procedure an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

outcome factor; variable that may change in response to manipulationsv of iv

validity

extent to which a test or experimental measures predict what it’s supposed to

What’s an example of negative correlation?

People who spend more time exercising tend to weigh less

What’s only used in correlational studies?

scatterplots

Researchers have discovered individuals with lower income levels report having fewer hours of total sleep what does this mean?

Income and sleep levels are positively correlated

What correlational coefficients represent the strongest relationship between two variables?

\-.85

What is the purpose of random assignment?

Reduce potential confounding variables

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently ocurring score(s) in a distriubtion

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, botained by adding the scores and then dividng by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within 1 standard deviation of it ( fewer and fewer are near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of somethingq being true of a population

What’s a measure of variation?

range

which statistical measure of central tendency is most affected by extreme scores?

mean

a researcher calculates statistical significance of her study and finds a 5% chance that results are due to chance. What’s an accurate interpretation of this finding?

This is the minimum result typically considered statistically significant

Descriptive statistics ______ __;__ while inferentialc statistics ______?

summarize data; determine if data can be generalized to other populations

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

informed consent

an ethical principle that reserach participants must be told enough to enable them to choose wheter they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

What’s most likely to be emphasized in people’s cultures than in collectivist cultures?

personal achievement