SDSU - AAS 100 Final 2024

U.S. and Japanese Relations

1940

• U.S. - Ended a trade treaty with Japan and Banned the sale of aviation fuel and scrap metal to Japan

• Japan - occupied Indochina to attain raw materials

1941

• U.S. - Froze all Japanese assets in the US and a total embargo

In 1940, U.S.-Japan relations were tense and deteriorating due to Japan's increasing military aggression in Asia. Japan had invaded China in 1937 and was expanding its control over parts of Southeast Asia, which alarmed the United States and other Western powers. In response, the U.S. imposed economic sanctions, including an embargo on oil and steel, essential resources for Japan's war machine. These sanctions, coupled with Japan's ambitions for territorial expansion, led to heightened tensions. By the end of 1940, Japan's government was considering military action against the U.S. and its allies, setting the stage for the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, which ultimately led to the U.S. entering World War II.

John Dewitt

From Document 2, Chapter 8:

John Dewitt urged the War Department to intern Japanese Americans because he was afraid of the large population in the West. He believed that there was a large concentration of Japanese among "The communication, supply, power, and water".

Minoru Yasui

1. Minoru Yasui of Portland, Oregon—the first Japanese American to become a lawyer in Oregon. Could not find work, and moved to Chicago.

2. After the war, his father told him to move back to Oregon to get enlisted. He tried 9 times but was denied.

3. His father was arrested as an "enemy alien" and his assets were frozen.

4. He walked around downtown around 11 pm on March 28, 1942, to test the constitutionality of the curfew that targeted at Japanese. He turned himself in and was convicted. The lower court denied his citizenship.

5. On June 21, 1943, in Yasui v. United States, the court ruled unanimously that the government did have the authority to restrict the lives of civilian citizens during wartime. The Supreme Court upheld his citizenship.

Yasui's legal battle highlighted the unconstitutional nature of the U.S. government's treatment of Japanese Americans during the war. Although his conviction was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court, the case symbolized the broader struggle for civil rights

Gordon Hirabayashi

1. Born in Seattle, Washington. He stayed at the library of the University of Washington, Seattle to contest the curfew law.

2. Turned himself in to the FBI.

3. Hirabayashi v. United States (1943)--the application of curfews against members of a minority group was constitutional when the nation was at war with the country from which that group's ancestors originated.

4. He hitchhiked to a prison in Arizona.

5. He later spent a year in federal prison for refusing induction into the armed forces, contending that a questionnaire sent to Japanese American internees demanding renunciation of allegiance to the emperor of Japan was racially discriminatory because other ethnic groups were not asked about adherence to foreign leaders

Hirabayashi v. United States (1943) was a landmark case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of curfews imposed on Japanese Americans during World War II. The case involved Gordon Hirabayashi, who defied the curfew order, arguing that it violated his constitutional rights. The Court's decision reinforced the government's wartime authority, but it was later criticized for its failure to protect civil liberties. In the 1980s, this ruling, along with others related to Japanese American internment, was revisited, and Hirabayashi's conviction was ultimately overturned, recognizing the injustice of the wartime actions.

Fred Korematsu

1. Born in Oakland, California

2. Wanted to be with his Italian girlfriend and changed his name to Clyde Sarah, and claimed his parents were of Spanish and Hawaiian ancestry.

3. Arrested for violating a military order and gained ACLU support

4. Korematsu v. the United States (1944) upheld that a military necessity to intern Japanese Americans was constitutional

5. Justice Frank Murphy—" Legalization of Racism"

• A. No "immediate, imminent, and impending" danger—No martial law

• B. Violation of the Fifth Amendment—a guarantee of due process

• C. No freedom of mobility

• D. No due process

• E. Individual guilt did not prove group guilt

Korematsu v. United States (1944) was a pivotal Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, ruling that national security concerns justified the government's actions. Fred Korematsu, who defied the internment order, was convicted, but the decision became controversial for its endorsement of racial discrimination. In later years, the case was heavily criticized, and in 1983, Korematsu's conviction was overturned, with many seeing the case as a significant example of civil rights violations during wartime. The ruling is often cited as a cautionary tale against racial prejudice and governmental overreach.

Mitsuye Endo

1. Born in Sacramento

2. After Pearl Harbor, she got fired from her position as a typist at the California Department of Motor Vehicles.

3. She was first interned at the Tule Lake camp and then at the Topaz camp.

4. She was first in a class-action lawsuit against the California State Personnel Board.

5. Attorney James C. Purcell filed a lawsuit in 1942 against the internment.

6. In December 1944 the Supreme Court decreed that persons of Japanese descent could not be held in confinement without proof of their disloyalty.

7. The case compelled the government to lift the internment order.

Mitsuye Endo was a Japanese American woman whose legal case, Endo v. United States (1944), became a landmark in the fight against the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Endo, who was wrongfully interned despite being loyal to the U.S., challenged her detention, arguing that the government could not lawfully hold a citizen who was loyal and not a security threat. The Supreme Court ruled in her favor, ordering her release and setting a precedent that the government could not continue the internment of loyal citizens, marking a significant step in the eventual end of the internment camps.

Susan Ahn Cuddy

1. Daughter of Chang-ho Ahn

2. She joined the Navy in 1942 and served until 1946, reaching the rank of lieutenant. She was the first Asian-American woman to join the U.S. Navy.

3. Graduated from San Diego State College

Susan Ahn Cuddy was a pioneering Korean American woman who made significant contributions to both military service and civil rights. During World War II, she became the first Asian American woman to serve in the U.S. Navy, where she worked as a radar officer. After the war, she continued to fight for civil rights, advocating for Asian American representation and inclusion. Cuddy's accomplishments broke barriers for both women and Asian Americans in the military and helped pave the way for future generations of minorities to serve and be recognized in various fields.

War Brides Act (1945)

The War Brides Act of 1945 was a U.S. law that allowed foreign-born wives, children, and other dependents of American soldiers who served during World War II to immigrate to the United States. It facilitated the reunion of soldiers with their spouses and children, many of whom were from European countries, but also included those from the Pacific. The act helped address the social and emotional impact of the war by enabling families to reunite, and it was one of the first pieces of legislation to prioritize family reunification in U.S. immigration policy.

"Kibei Problem"

The "Kibei Problem" referred to concerns within the Japanese American community during the early 20th century, particularly regarding Japanese Americans who were born in the U.S. but raised in Japan and later returned to the U.S. These individuals, known as Kibei, were often seen as more loyal to Japan than to the United States, leading to suspicion and distrust, especially during World War II. Their dual cultural ties and perceived divided loyalty contributed to fears among both the U.S. government and the broader public, influencing policies such as internment during the war."Kibei Problem

Chinese American women defense workers in WWII

1. Second-generation women worked in defense industries.

2. Defense jobs paid more but offered no leadership positions to Asians.

During World War II, Chinese American women played a significant role in the U.S. war effort as defense workers, contributing to the production of munitions, aircraft, and other wartime supplies. Despite facing racial discrimination and limited opportunities, many Chinese American women found employment in factories and shipyards, a critical shift from traditional roles in domestic work. Their involvement not only helped support the war effort but also marked an important step in challenging gender and racial barriers, as they became part of the broader movement of women entering the workforce during the war.

Manuel Buaken

From Chapter 9, Document 6:

Manuel Buaken stated that Americans have these great ideals but fail to practice them by discriminating. Further states that Filipinos contributed have contributed economic welfare and useful arts.

Chamorros (During WWII)

From Chapter 9, Document 7:

Chamorros faced dangerous war conditions while occupied by Japan. They were forced to march, watch families get beaten, and forced to starve.

During World War II, the Chamorros, the indigenous people of Guam, experienced significant hardships under Japanese occupation. In 1941, Guam was seized by Japan, and the Chamorros faced harsh treatment, including forced labor, atrocities, and widespread fear. Many Chamorros were subjected to brutal tactics, including executions and torture, as the Japanese military sought to maintain control. After the U.S. recaptured Guam in 1944, the Chamorros were liberated, but their island and lives were deeply affected by the war.

Tule Lake

Tule Lake was a significant site during World War II, as it was one of the largest and most notorious Japanese American internment camps. Located in northern California, Tule Lake housed more than 18,000 Japanese Americans, many of whom were considered "disloyal" because they resisted forced relocation or refused to swear allegiance to the United States. In 1943, the camp was transformed into a "segregation center" for those who had answered "no" to certain loyalty questions, leading to its reputation as a place of heightened tensions and dissent. The significance of Tule Lake lies in its role in the internment experience and its later connection to the struggle for redress and the acknowledgment of the injustices faced by Japanese Americans during the war.

Japanese Internment

1. Forced to liquidate possessions

2. Move as family units

3. Some in Indian Reservations—the Federal Government wanted Japanese Americans to improve Native American land.

4. Terrible conditions

5. Disempower the immigrant generation

6. Families disintegrated

After Camp

1. $25 and a train ticket

2. Continued to face racial prejudice especially on the West Coast

Japanese American internment refers to the forced relocation and incarceration of around 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, during World War II. In 1942, following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government, fearing espionage and disloyalty, issued Executive Order 9066, which authorized the internment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast. They were placed in remote camps under harsh conditions, often losing their homes and businesses.

WWII and Asian American Communities

1. Japanese Americans faced forced internment, where over 120,000 individuals, most of whom were U.S. citizens, were relocated to camps due to fears of espionage after the attack on Pearl Harbor. This led to a significant loss of property, livelihoods, and personal freedoms. However, many also served in the military, notably in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which became one of the most decorated units in U.S. history.

2. Chinese Americans experienced a shift in public perception. Prior to the war, they were often viewed with racial prejudice, but as China became an ally of the U.S. against Japan, anti-Chinese sentiment decreased. This change helped open up more opportunities for Chinese Americans in the workforce, though discrimination persisted.

3. Filipino Americans, many of whom had been serving in the U.S. military or working in agriculture, saw an increase in visibility during the war. Filipino American soldiers fought alongside American forces in the Pacific. However, they faced challenges after the war, including struggles for recognition and benefits, such as veterans' rights.

4. Korean Americans also faced challenges, as many were caught between their allegiance to the U.S. and the desire for independence from Japan, which had occupied Korea. Some Korean Americans, especially those from activist families, were involved in pro-independence movements, while others served in the U.S. military.

McCarran-Walter Act (1952)

McCarran Walter Act of 1952 (vetoed by Truman)

• 1. Kept the national origins quota system

• 2. Counted Asian immigrants by their racial ancestry. Other groups were by their places of birth.

• 3. Japan (185), China (105), other Asians (100)

• 4. immigration--prioritized skilled workers and then family reunification

The McCarran-Walter Act of 1952, officially known as the Immigration and Nationality Act, was a significant U.S. law that reshaped immigration policy. It consolidated previous immigration laws and maintained racial and national quotas, favoring European immigrants while limiting immigration from Asia and other non-European regions. However, it also introduced some reforms, such as establishing a system based on skills and family connections. The Act also expanded the government's power to exclude or deport immigrants deemed subversive or associated with communism, reflecting Cold War fears.

Sammy Lee

Sammy Lee

(two-time Olympic Gold Medal Diving in 1948 and 1952)

--denied purchasing a house in Anaheim

Sammy Lee was a pioneering American diver and Olympic gold medalist, notable for breaking racial barriers in sports. He became the first Asian American to win an Olympic gold medal in diving, securing victories in the 10-meter platform and 3-meter springboard events at the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics. Lee's success was groundbreaking, as he overcame racial prejudice and the challenges faced by Asian Americans during that era. His achievements helped pave the way for greater acceptance and representation of Asian Americans in sports and broader society.

The Arrival of Asian Women in the U.S.

Amendment to the War Brides Act of 1945 in 1946

(only applied to Chinese veterans)

From 1947 to 1965, more women immigrated to the country than Asian men.

Chinese Wives of American Citizens Act of 1946

Chinese American citizens' wives were barred from immigrating to the US after the 1924 Immigration Act.

. Married non-Asians GIs—entered as non-quota immigrants

Qian Xuesen

1. Graduated from MIT and Cal Tech and worked for the Manhattan Project.

2. Accused of a Chinese Communist sympathizer and stripped of security clearance.

3. House arrest for 5 years.

4. Requested to go to China and returned to China in 1955.

5. Helped China develop nuclear weapons and a space program.

Qian Xuesen was a Chinese aerospace engineer and physicist who played a pivotal role in developing China's missile and space programs. Often referred to as the "father of the Chinese missile program," he was instrumental in China's successful development of ballistic missiles and its first nuclear weapons. Born in China and educated in the United States, Qian was caught in the political tensions of the Cold War when he was accused of espionage and later expelled from the U.S. in the 1950s. After returning to China, he became a key figure in advancing China's technological and military capabilities, helping the country become a significant player in space and defense technologies. His contributions were crucial to China's scientific and technological independence.

Political Refugees

A. Communists took over China (1949)

B. College and graduate students—5,000 studying in the US and seeking political asylum. The State Department allowed them to adjust their visa status. Most were China's brightest intellectuals, coming from affluent families.

C. Professionals-- worked in universities, research laboratories, and private industries, bought homes in the suburbs

D. No ties with the old community

E. 2,000--Under the 1953 Refugee Act

F. 1,000—Refugee Acts of 1957 and 1959.G. 1962 Parole program (John F. Kennedy) Between 1962 and 1967,15,000.

H. These highly educated Chinese increased Chinese American middle-class

Sing Sheng (1952)

Sing Sheng was a hard-working Chinese-American citizen, who was like any other American who looks out for the interest of their family. He was discouraged by locals from moving into Southwood. Sheng proposed solving the issue through democracy using votes. Southwood residents voted "no" and did not allow him to move into the area.

In the Matter of Cha Jung Hee

Cha Jung Hee, filmmaker and subject Deann Borshay Liem talks about the legacy of the Korean War and its impact on her adoption. At the orphanage back in Korea, she learns how she was switched with Cha Jung Hee, another young girl whose adoption paperwork was already underway.

Higher Education (From Becoming American Lecture)

A. Informal Quotas from elite universities

B. Asian Americans have a lower Admission Rate

C. Berkeley--1984

1. Raised GPA from 3.75 to 3.9

2. No Exemption for Asian American Educational Opportunity Program students.

3. 400 on SAT Verbal scores for permanent resident alien applicants Berkeley issued an apology

Vincent Chin

Vincent Chin was a Chinese American man whose tragic death in 1982 became a landmark case in the fight against anti-Asian racism in the United States. He was beaten to death by two white men, Ronald Ebens and Michael Nitz, in Detroit, Michigan. The attack was allegedly motivated by racial animus, as the assailants blamed Asian immigrants for the loss of American jobs in the auto industry.

What makes Vincent Chin's case significant is that the two men received only minimal sentences, with Ebens and Nitz convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to probation and fines, sparking outrage in the Asian American community. This case highlighted the lack of justice for racially motivated violence against Asians, leading to a widespread mobilization of Asian American activists.

The outcry over the lenient sentencing helped galvanize the Asian American civil rights movement, leading to greater political activism and awareness of racial discrimination faced by Asian Americans.

International Hotel (1977 Eviction)

The eviction of tenants from the International Hotel in 1977 is a significant event in Asian American history, particularly in the context of housing rights and activism. The International Hotel, located in San Francisco's Chinatown, housed primarily elderly Filipino and Asian American low-income residents. In 1977, the building's owners, in collaboration with city officials, sought to evict the tenants to make way for a commercial development.

The eviction sparked widespread protests and activism, as the community fought to protect the tenants' rights and preserve the historical significance of the building. It became a symbol of resistance against gentrification and the displacement of working-class Asian Americans. The International Hotel struggle highlighted issues of housing inequality, racial discrimination, and the fight for immigrant rights, making it a pivotal moment in Asian American activism. The legacy of the fight continues to resonate in contemporary struggles for affordable housing and immigrant rights.

San Francisco State Strike (1968-1969)

The San Francisco State Strike of 1968-1969 was a pivotal moment in the history of student activism and Asian American civil rights. The strike was led by a coalition of students, including African American, Chicano, and Asian American groups, who demanded greater representation and inclusion in higher education (Went on for 5 months).

The strike's significance lies in the establishment of the College of Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University, the first of its kind in the nation. The Asian American students, in particular, played a key role in advocating for courses and programs that addressed their histories, cultures, and struggles, which had been largely ignored in traditional curricula. The strike was a milestone in the Asian American civil rights movement, marking a shift toward political engagement and activism among Asian American students and contributing to the broader fight for racial justice and equity in education.

Gabriela Network

The Gabriela Network is a Filipino American women's activist organization that advocates for the rights of Filipino women, particularly those facing oppression and exploitation. Founded in the late 1990s, it is an extension of the Filipino women's group Gabriela in the Philippines. The network addresses issues such as domestic violence, labor exploitation, immigration, and gender-based violence, with a focus on empowering Filipino women through education, advocacy, and organizing. It also works in solidarity with other marginalized communities, promoting social justice and women's rights both in the U.S. and internationally. The Gabriela Network is significant for its role in the Filipino and Asian American women's rights movements.

Panethnicity

Panethnicity has played a significant role in Asian American civil rights by uniting diverse Asian ethnic groups—such as Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, and South Asian Americans—under a common identity, despite their cultural and linguistic differences. This collective identity has been crucial in mobilizing political power and raising awareness about issues of racial discrimination, immigration, labor rights, and social justice that affect all Asian Americans.

The significance of panethnicity in Asian American civil rights lies in its ability to create a unified voice for advocacy, allowing different communities to collectively address shared experiences of marginalization and injustice. It helped fuel the Asian American political movement in the 1960s and 1970s, which included the fight for better representation, social services, and legal protections, as well as combating discriminatory policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and Japanese internment.

By organizing across ethnic lines, panethnicity strengthened the Asian American presence in U.S. politics and activism, making it a powerful tool in the broader civil rights struggle.

Radical Orientalism

Radical Orientalism is important to Asian American civil rights because it challenges the stereotypes and racialized perceptions that have historically justified discrimination against Asian Americans. By critiquing how the West has constructed Asians as exotic, inferior, or threatening, it reveals the deep roots of anti-Asian racism and exposes how these views have shaped policies like exclusionary immigration laws and the mistreatment of Asian communities. Understanding radical Orientalism empowers Asian Americans to challenge these harmful narratives, promote accurate representations, and advocate for greater social justice and equality.

Multiracialism

Multiracialism in relation to the Asian American civil rights movement refers to the recognition and advocacy of solidarity among different racial and ethnic groups, acknowledging shared struggles against systemic racism, discrimination, and inequality. It emphasizes the importance of unity among Asian Americans and other marginalized communities—such as African Americans, Latino/a Americans, and Native Americans—in fighting for social, political, and economic justice. Multiracialism in this context seeks to challenge the division between racial groups, promoting collective action and a broader, more inclusive approach to civil rights that addresses the interconnectedness of various forms of oppression.

Asian American News Media

1. Gidra (UCLA)—racism, anti-war, and ethnic studies

2. Getting Together (I Wor Kuen, New York)—attacked racism, demanded social services, and criticized Chinatown establishments.

3. East Wind (University of Michigan)—attacked racism and ethnic exploitation, and demanded an Asian American studies

Asian American news media played a crucial role in the Asian American Civil Rights movement by providing a platform to raise awareness about issues of racial discrimination, injustice, and inequality faced by Asian communities. It helped amplify the voices of Asian American activists, highlighted social and political struggles, and countered mainstream media's often stereotypical or marginalizing portrayals of Asians. Through newspapers, radio, and later television, Asian American media organizations fostered a sense of solidarity, informed the community about important civil rights issues, and mobilized collective action, making it a vital tool in advocating for social change and political empowerment.

Asian American studies

A. San Francisco State University—Third World Liberation Front

B. University of California, Berkeley—Asian American Political Alliance

1. Fight for ethnic studies courses and Asian American programs and departments.

2. Forced college administrations to heed the demands

Asian American studies emerged as a significant field during the Civil Rights movement, as it provided a platform to explore the unique experiences, struggles, and histories of Asian Americans. It challenged the dominant narratives that often erased or misrepresented Asian American communities and helped reclaim their identity, culture, and contributions to American society. The establishment of Asian American studies programs in the late 1960s and early 1970s, particularly at universities like San Francisco State, was a direct result of student activism and demands for greater representation and inclusion. This academic movement played a crucial role in fostering political awareness, solidarity, and empowerment among Asian Americans, connecting their struggles to broader civil rights and social justice movements.

"Model Minority" Myth

The model minority myth is a stereotype that portrays Asian Americans as successful, hardworking, and socially well-adjusted, often in comparison to other minority groups. While it may seem positive, the myth is harmful because it overlooks the diversity of experiences within Asian American communities and masks the challenges they face, such as discrimination, economic inequality, and mental health issues. It also creates divisions among minority groups and places undue pressure on Asian Americans to conform to unrealistic expectations. The myth has been used to downplay the need for social justice and civil rights protections for Asian Americans, contributing to their marginalization in the broader conversation about racial inequality.

"Yellow Power"

The term "Yellow Power" emerged during the Asian American civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s as a rallying cry for Asian Americans to assert their political power, unity, and identity. It was a response to racial discrimination and the marginalization of Asian communities, emphasizing pride in being Asian and challenging stereotypes. Inspired by the Black Power movement, "Yellow Power" sought to empower Asian Americans, foster solidarity among different Asian ethnic groups, and promote activism in fighting for equal rights, better representation, and social justice. The term became a symbol of Asian American resistance and pride during a critical period of political mobilization.

Local 7

Local 7 refers to the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) Local 7, a significant labor union based in the San Francisco Bay Area that played a role in the Asian American civil rights movement. In the mid-20th century, Local 7 became a strong advocate for the rights of Asian American workers, particularly among Filipino and other Asian immigrant laborers who worked in the docks and warehouse industries. The union was involved in organizing efforts to improve working conditions, fight against racial discrimination, and promote solidarity among Asian American workers and other marginalized groups. Local 7's activism contributed to the broader labor and civil rights movements, helping to elevate the political and social standing of Asian Americans in the workforce and beyond.

1965 Immigration Act (Hart-Celler Act)

A. Removed "national origins" 1924 Immigration Act

1. Favored Northern and Western European immigrants

2. Canada and Mexico(no quota limit)

3. Banned Asian immigration

B. A set quota Eastern Hemisphere—170,000 (20,000 each country)Western Hemisphere—120,000 (no country limits)

C. A Preference System

1. Family reunion "allowed Asian spouses, unmarried minor children, and parents of U.S. citizens to enter as nonquota immigrants without any numerical limits"

2. Skilled workers

The 1965 Immigration Act, also known as the Hart-Celler Act, was a landmark U.S. law that reformed immigration policies by eliminating the racially discriminatory quotas that favored European immigrants. Instead, the act established a system based on family reunification and skilled labor, opening the door for increased immigration from Asia, Latin America, and other non-European regions. This led to a significant rise in Asian immigration to the United States, profoundly reshaping the demographic makeup of the country and contributing to the growth of Asian American communities. The act played a key role in the social and cultural changes that helped fuel the Asian American civil rights movement.

"Brain Gain" and "Brain Drain"

A concept by Menderes Candan and Uwe Unger where "Brain Drain" is when highly skilled workers from a foreign country move to a host country. "Brain Gain" is when highly skilled individuals return and transfer knowledge or wealth back to their home country.

Filipina Nurses (Post-1965 Immigration)

Filipina nurses were recruited by the U.S. with the appeal of economic gain. Realized way more money than they received back in the Philippines. Money was good, but they missed their homes. Many formed a strong community to help get accustomed to the U.S. and for new arrivals.

Indian American Motel Owners

Indian Americans came to dominate the motel business by taking risks and precautions. Knowing they would face racial tension, they hired white desk workers as representation. Had more social connections than any other business.

Jose Antonio Vargas

In 2012, Jose Antonia Varga's testimony in front of chairmen paved a pathway for undocumented immigrants by sharing his immigration experience. His grandfather brought him to the U.S. as a child from the Philippines with a fake green card. States how it's dehumanizing to be called illegal and that papers don't define recognition as a human being.

Los Angeles riots (1992)

The Los Angeles Riots of 1992 had significant implications for the Asian American community, highlighting issues of racial tensions, economic disparity, and the struggle for justice. The riots were sparked by the acquittal of four white police officers who were filmed beating Rodney King, a Black man, leading to widespread protests and violence. Asian American businesses, particularly in South Los Angeles, were heavily impacted, with many stores looted and destroyed.

For the Asian American community, the riots exposed the vulnerabilities and racial animosity they faced, particularly as some Black residents expressed anger at the perceived economic dominance of Asian American business owners in their neighborhoods. It also led to increased awareness of the need for Asian American solidarity with other marginalized groups and greater involvement in local politics and activism. The riots underscored the complex dynamics of race and class in America and catalyzed efforts to address issues of racial injustice, community relations, and economic inequality within the Asian American community.

Post-1965 Asian American Immigration

Post-1965 Asian American immigration was significantly shaped by the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, which ended restrictive quotas that had favored European immigrants and allowed for greater immigration from Asia. This led to a surge in immigrants from countries like China, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Korea, and other parts of Asia.

Many Asian immigrants came to the U.S. for better economic opportunities, education, and political asylum, especially after conflicts such as the Vietnam War. This shift dramatically transformed the demographic landscape of the United States, leading to the growth of diverse and vibrant Asian American communities. These new immigrants often faced challenges such as language barriers, racial discrimination, and difficulties integrating into American society. However, they also contributed significantly to the American economy, particularly in industries such as technology, medicine, and small businesses. The post-1965 immigration wave helped shape the Asian American identity and fueled the broader Asian American civil rights movement.

Pacific Islanders and Affirmative Action

Pacific Islanders have been included in the broader category of Asian Americans in discussions about affirmative action, which aims to address racial disparities in education, employment, and government contracting. However, Pacific Islanders, including groups like Native Hawaiians, Samoans, Tongans, and others, often face unique challenges that differ from those of Asian American groups traditionally considered "model minorities."

While some Pacific Islander communities experience high rates of poverty, limited access to education, and healthcare disparities, they are often lumped into broader "Asian American" categories in affirmative action policies. This can overlook their specific needs and challenges. As a result, Pacific Islander advocates have pushed for more nuanced approaches that consider the diverse experiences of these groups, ensuring that affirmative action programs better address the unique issues faced by Pacific Islanders.

Amerasian Homecoming Act of 1987

The Amerasian Homecoming Act of 1987 was a U.S. law that allowed children of American military personnel and Vietnamese women, known as Amerasians, to immigrate to the United States. The act was part of the U.S. government's effort to address the aftermath of the Vietnam War, particularly the fate of Amerasians who often faced discrimination and hardship in Vietnam due to their mixed heritage.

Under the act, thousands of Amerasians and their families were allowed to resettle in the U.S., offering them the opportunity for a better life and addressing the legacy of the war. The law reflected broader efforts to support those affected by the war and played a role in shaping the post-Vietnam War relationship between the U.S. and Southeast Asia. It also contributed to the growing diversity of Asian American communities in the U.S.

Khmer Rouge

The Khmer Rouge was a radical communist regime that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979 under the leadership of Pol Pot. The regime sought to transform Cambodia into an agrarian socialist society, leading to the forced relocation of urban populations to the countryside, mass executions, and widespread human rights atrocities. During its rule, an estimated 1.7 million people—about a quarter of the country's population—died due to starvation, forced labor, torture, and execution in what is now known as the Cambodian Genocide. The Khmer Rouge's brutal policies devastated the country and its effects are still felt today in Cambodia and among Cambodian diaspora communities, including those in the United States.

Madison Nguyen

In 2009. Madison Nguyen was a Vietnamese councilwoman who had to fight a recall because a lot of people accused her of being a communist

Bee Vang

A Hmong movie actor perceives his role in the film Gran Torino as needing to be more appropriately representing the Hmong community. He believes that the directors set up the characters to make them not at all who they truly are, in the film any minority could replace them.

Hmong New Year celebrations

From Chapter 13, Essay 2:

Hmong New Year celebrations revealed division in the U.S. among Hmong communities through different religions, beliefs, and traditions. Many disagreed about when New Year celebrations should be held. The U.S. rules and regulations prevented certain traditions. Technology, education, and capital all seem to contradict tradition. Some believe that original traditions have been abandoned. It also revealed gender discrimination within the community.

What are the major differences between First-wave and Second-wave Southeast Asian refugees?

First-wave refugees (late 1970s to early 1980s) were primarily Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian refugees fleeing the immediate aftermaths of the Vietnam War, the Khmer Rouge regime, and communist takeovers. They were often displaced abruptly, with many arriving in emergency situations and facing significant challenges in adapting to life in the U.S. with limited support systems.

Second-wave refugees (1980s to 1990s) included more Hmong refugees from Laos, Vietnamese boat people, and survivors of the Khmer Rouge. They were resettled through more structured programs like the Orderly Departure Program, which provided better-organized refugee assistance and allowed for a more planned integration process. This wave also included more family reunifications, contributing to a stronger community foundation.

Middle-Class Asian Americans (During the Cold War)

During the Cold War, middle-class Asian Americans played a significant but often overlooked role in shaping American society. The Cold War era saw increased anti-communist sentiment, which influenced how Asian Americans were viewed and treated, particularly those of Chinese, Korean, and Filipino descent. Many Asian Americans in the middle class, particularly immigrants, faced racial discrimination, but they were also seen as important in promoting the image of the "model minority" due to their perceived success and hard work.

Middle-class Asian Americans during this time were often involved in entrepreneurship, education, and small businesses. Some also navigated complex racial dynamics, striving for acceptance in mainstream society while dealing with racial stereotypes and prejudice. Additionally, many middle-class Asian Americans became more politically active, advocating for civil rights and fighting against discriminatory immigration policies, particularly after the passage of the 1965 Immigration Act. This era laid the groundwork for the growing Asian American civil rights movement.