Research Methods & Critical Thinking

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the notes on research methods, statistics, and ethics.

Critical Thinking

The process of actively and skillfully analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to reach well-reasoned conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it (the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).

Peer Reviewers

Scientists who evaluate research studies before publication to ensure quality and validity.

Theory

An explanation using integrated principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study to define variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group by questioning a representative sample.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-Report Bias

Errors in data that occur when people inaccurately report their own behaviors, thoughts, or feelings.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

Variable

Any factor that can vary in amount or kind.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme measurements to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment (independent variable).

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize pre-existing differences.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where participants don't know which condition they're in.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and research staff don't know which condition participants are in.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations influence the study's outcome.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

Research that uses numerical data and statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research

Research that focuses on qualities and characteristics that cannot be measured numerically.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that a specific score is greater than or equal to.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize from sample data to populations.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies on the same topic.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A statistical measure of the magnitude of a treatment effect or relationship between variables.