unit 4: research methods in studying gender

why is it important to study gender systematically?

without systematic research people would likely rely too heavily on stereotypes/intuitions to understand questions of gender, making them prone to misconceptions like;

• many believe men inherently possess greater math ability than women

• many people regard women as more talkative than men

• common western views dating back to the victorian era hold that women are less interested in sex

gender psychology was not really a large feat until…

the second wave of feminism in the 1970s where attention was brought to women’s issues

variance:

a measure of how far the scores in a distribution vary on average from the mean distribution

maximalist approach: & dangers

a tendency to emphasize differences between members of different sex groups and view them as qualitatively different

• dangers: encourages people to ignore the overlap that often characterizes people of different sexes - by focusing on differences are we promoting gender stereotypes?

minimalist approach: & dangers

a tendency to emphasize similarities between members of different sex groups

• dangers: one can argue this approach ignores potentially important sex differences - failing to acknowledge when differences do exist

should psychologists study sex differences - debate: yes! (4)

• science is the best tool we have to develop accurate understandings of sex differences

• knowledge from sex difference research can help counter gender bias and misconceptions

• studying sex differences is essential in more effectively treating disorders such as alzheimers

• allows psychologists to identify the contexts in which such differences do and do not emerge, assisting theory development

should psychologists study sex differences - debate: no! (3)

• research on sex differences can have the unfortunate consequence of reinforcing gender stereotypes - publication bias (file drawer problem) which refers to the tendency in the field of psychology to publish studies that find significant group differences more often than studies that dont

• since popular media tend toward exaggerating sex differences to grab attention, researchers should avoid contributing to this by providing media outlets with material on sex differences

• current methods used to compare women and men stem from a faulty and limited conceptualization of gender - excludes intersex, nonbinary, gender fluid, transgender people, also fails to consider how people differ based on social categories (race, class, sexual orientation)

falsifiable theory:

a theory which can be disproved with evidence - meaning the researcher must specify a set of conditions that if they occurred would invalidate the theory

science:

a way of thinking much more than it is a body of knowledge, its goal is to find out how the world works, to see what regularities there may be, to penetrate to the connection of things - from subnuclear particles, which may be the constituents of all matter, to living organisms, the human social community, and thence to the cosmos as a whole

scientific method:

process by which researchers conduct systematic studies in order to test hypotheses derived from theory

hypothesis:

a testable prediction about the outcome of a study, stated in terms of the variables tested

independent variables:

variable that stands alone and isnt changed by the other variables you are trying to measure

dependent variables:

variable that changes in response to another variable (independent) - the variable you are trying to measure in the experiment which is affected by the independent variable

gender diagnosticity (GD) score:

the estimated probability that an individual is male or female given the individual’s gender-related interests - a GD score of .85 means that an individual has an 85% chance of being male and a 15% chance of being female

quantitative methods:

methods in which researchers convert variables of interest into numbers and use statistical analyses to test hypotheses - examples include experimental, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, correlational designs

experiment:

a type of research design in which a researcher systematically manipulates one or more independent variables to observe whether this causes changes in one or more dependent variables

independent variables:

variables that are assumed to cause changes in a dependent variable; in an experiment, the independent variable is systematically manipulated by the researcher

dependent variables:

an outcome variable; in an experiment, the dependent variable is the one hypothesized to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable

random assignment:

a process of assigning participants to experimental conditions randomly, so that each person has an equal chance of ending up in each condition

5 kinds of quantitative methods:

• experimental

• quasi-experimental

• person-by treatment

• ex post facto

• correlational

experimental design:

researcher manipulates an independent variables, randomly assigning participants to different conditions and measures their standing on a dependent variable

pseudo-experiments:

research designs that appear experimental on the surface but lack one or more of the features of true experiments; include quasi-experiments and ex post facto designs

quasi-experiments:

a design that mimics the appearance of a true experiments but in which the researcher lacks control over one or more manipulations

person-by-treatment design:

a quasi-experimental design involving at least one participant variable and at least one true independent variable with random assignment

participant variable:

naturally occurring feature of research participants (sex, personality, cultural background) that is measured in a study rather than manipulated

ex post facto design:

a non-experimental design involving which groups of people who differ on a participant variable (ex: sex) are compared on some dependent variable

interaction effect:

pattern in which the strength or direction of the association between an independent (or participant) variable and a dependent variable differs as a function of another independent (or participant) variable

correlational design:

researcher measures people’s standing on continuous participant variables (ex; stress and optimism) and examines the strength and direction of the association between them

positive correlation:

indicate that the variables change in the same direction (ex: as one increases the other increases, vice versa)

negative correlation:

indicates that the variables change in opposite directions (ex: as one increases the other decreases, vice versa)

reverse causation:

in correlational research, the possibility that the true cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is the reverse of what is initially assumed (aka the directionality problem); instead of x causing y it is possible that y causes x

third variable problem:

in correlational research, the possibility that an unmeasured third variable (z) is responsible for the relationship between two correlated variables (x & y)

longitudinal designs:

where researchers follow people over time and measure variables at multiple points in their lives

cross-sectional designs:

where researchers measure variables at one point in time

qualitative methods:

methods in which researchers collect in-depth, non-numerical information in order to understand participants’ subjective experiences within a specific context - examples include case studies, interviews, focus groups

5 types of qualitative methods:

• case study

• interview

• focus group

• narrative research

• ethnography

interview:

researcher asks participants a series of open ended questions in an unstructured / semi-structured or structured format

focus group:

a moderator conducts an interview in a semi-structured group format

narrative research:

a researcher analyzes the stories that people tell (ex: in journals or letters)

ethnography:

researcher attempts to understand the meanings and practices of a particular culture or subculture by (immersion) living within the group for an extended period of time

case studies:

researchers conduct an in depth investigation of a single entity, usually a person although they can be conducted on groups or events (like a natural disaster) = this qualitative approach provides rich detail about the cases under study however their results tend to lack generalizability

generalizability:

the extent to which the findings of a study would apply beyond the sample in the original study to the larger population

mixed methods approach:

a research approach that combines both qualitative and quantitative methods within the same study or same program of research

meta-analysis:

quantitative technique that allows researchers to investigate research findings across a large collection of individual studies

effect size:

quantitative measure of the magnitude and direction of a difference between groups, or the strength of a relationship between variables

d statistic:

an effect size statistic that expresses the magnitude and direction between group means in standardized units

• 0-0.1 (close to zero)

• 0.11-0.35 (small)

• 0.36-0.65 (med)

• 0.66-1 (large)

• > 1 (very large)

negative vs positive d statistic values:

negative d values mean that girls/women score higher than boys/men on the variable of interest whereas positive d value means girls/women score lower than boys/men (androcentric formula treating men’s scores as the standard where women deviate from the “male norm”)

standard deviation:

a measure of how far the scores in a distribution vary, on average, from the mean value of the distribution; the square root of variance

within-group variance:

a measure of how spread out the values are among people within the same group (or condition of an experiment)

between-group variance:

the difference between the average values for each group in a study

post-positivism:

an orientation that views empirical investigation as a useful method for acquiring knowledge but recognizes its inherent biases and values

scientific positivism:

an orientation that emphasizes the scientific method and proposes that objective and value-free knowledge is attainable through empirical investigation

psychologists guidelines for gender-fair research: (4)

• researchers should work to eliminate sex bias from sampling and avoid using men as the norm (should not generalize findings from single sex samples to all people and should not select samples based on biased assumptions)

• researchers should use precise, non-gender biased, non evaluative terminology when collecting data and describing participants and research findings

• researchers should not exaggerate the prevalence and magnitude of sex differences

• researchers should not imply or state that sex differences are due to biological causes when biological factors have not been properly tested

psychologists guidelines for more inclusive research: (5)

• academic psychology would benefit from more ethnic, racial and class diversity among its professional ranks

• academic psychologists should strive to diversify their research samples - cross culturally as well

• researchers should routinely measure and report the demographic characteristics of their samples

• researchers should avoid language about sex differences that implies generalizability to all people without considering the conditions under which these differences emerge and disappear

• researchers should examine how structural inequalities and power differences associated with sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, race, class, age, ability, religion, and culture interact to shape people’s experiences

androcentric:

kind of biased, male-centred thinking that assumes men to be the norm and representative of all people

cognitive abilities:

mental skills such as paying attention, reasoning, remembering, solving problems, speaking, and interpreting speech

intelligence (or general mental ability):

the general capacity to understand ideas, think abstractly, reason, solve problems and learn - it is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test taking smarts but rather it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings

phrenology:

the discredited study of how the size and shape of the cranium (skull) relates to mental abilities and personal attributes

pseudoscience:

beliefs and practices that are presented as scientific despite lacking factual basis and proper scientific scrutiny

dendrites:

branch-like structures of neurons that receive neural messages from other neurons

essentialism:

the belief that human differences arise from stable and integral (usually biological) qualities within individuals

intelligence quotient (IQ):

a score representing an individuals level of intelligence as measured by a standardized intelligence test - IQ is calculated such that the average for an individuals same age peers is always set up to 100

eugenics:

movement whose members seek to control the genetic quality of the human population by preventing the reproduction of those deemed genetically inferior

factor analysis:

a statistical procedure used to identify clusters of related scores or items

verbal fluency:

the ability to generate words - d value shows consistent sex differences favouring women/girls in this category

note on sex differences:

• sex differences in quantitative abilities tend to be close to zero or small

• sex differences im verbal abilities tend to be small to moderate

• sex differences in visual-spatial abilities tend to be moderate - the size and direction of sex differences however, differ across the specific cognitive ability of interest

verbal reasoning:

the ability to understand and analyze concepts, often tested with analogies or word problems

visual-spatial abilities:

cognitive skills that help individuals understand relationships between objects and navigate 3D spaces - where d values tend to favour men/boys

mental rotation ability:

the ability to rotate an object in one’s mind

spatial visualization:

the ability to mentally manipulate and rotate objects in two or three dimensions

spatial relations:

the ability to represent and manipulate two- and 3D objects mentally

spatial location memory:

ability to remember the location of objects, places and events in physical space

spatial perception:

ability to understand the spatial relationships between objects and your body

outliers:

values at the extreme ends of a statistical distribution

greater male variability hypothesis:

the prediction that men show more variability than women in their distributions of scores on cognitive performance measures, leading them to be over represented in the very bottom and very top of score distributions

autism spectrum disorder:

a developmental disorder typically characterized by sensory sensitivities and repetitive behaviours and difficulties with speech, nonverbal communication and social interaction

dyslexia:

learning disability characterized by impairments in reading, including difficulties with word recognition and spelling

down syndrome:

genetic disorder characterized by physical growth delays, mild to moderate intellectual impairment and distinct physical features

allele:

variant form of a gene

education debt:

the ongoing cumulative lack of investment in the education of low income and racial minority students that leads to different educational experiences and outcomes based on race and income

achievement motivation:

an individual’s need to meet goals and accomplish tasks

single sex classrooms debate - yes children fare better in single sex classes: (3)

• girls and boys have different temperaments and behaviour patterns

• suggestion that the effectiveness of single sex vs mixed sex education may depend on complex social factors (like culture)

• ex: education segregated by sex in Muslim cultures where in many muslim countries girls outperform boys on math tests even though their countries score of gender equality is relatively low

single sex classrooms debate - no children do not fare better in single sex classes:

rather than erasing gender stereotypes single sex classrooms may actually reinforce stereotypes because the contrast between the single sex classroom and the mixed sex outside world can leave children unprepared for a world in which they must interact with people of all sexes / genders

flynn effect:

the observed rise over time in standardized intelligence test scores - puzzling observation of an increase in human intelligence scores over time

university of illinois - males superior spatial ability is not evolutionary for these reasons: (5)

problem 1:

• if it was truly an evolutionary adaptation, these genes that are beneficial and are supposedly being passed down to male offspring would also be passed down to female offspring - the only way a sexual dimorphism can be so pronounced is if the trait is good for one sex and bad for others (so why would it be bad for females to navigate)

problem 2:

• if it was only evolutionary for men because they were dominant hunter gatherers who needed to venture about - we should be able to test that theory by observing contemporary species - looking across 11 species there is no positive correlation

• if all species show this then it is not an adaptation that human men evolved as it exists across species with male/female distributions

• what if it is simply a side effect of testosterone

• testosterone spill over hypothesis (supported by data) unlike the evolutionary hypothesis

does gender matter (Barnes article): (2)

• hypothesizes that women are not advancing in science because of discrimination (stephen jay gould hypothesis)

• lawrence summers (harvard head) previously hypothesized that women are innately inferior to men

stephen jay gould hypothesis:

hypothesizes that women are not advancing in science because of discrimination

lawrence summers:

the previous head of harvard who stated a hypothesis that women are innately inferior to men

statistically significant findings only tell us that…

researchers found a gender difference to occur at higher than chance levels and do NOT tell us the magnitude of that effect and whether or not it would have meaningful consequences in everyday life

researchers might use quantitative methods which involve…

assigning numerical values to traits/attributes and measuring them thru standardized tests

researchers might use qualitative methods which use…

a variety of approaches to learn more about the content of people’s experiences

intelligence testing was largely…

unscientific (phrenology) until the early 20th century when IQ testing was first developed (alfred binet &. theodore simon) - early IQ tests put women at a systematic disadvantage because women historically received less formalized education than men

modern research on intelligence indicates that women and men are…

equal in overall mental ability but do differ in some more specialized cognitive skills

one of the few cognitive skills to show a gender difference are…

visual-spatial abilities (being able to visualize objects from different angles and mentally rotate them, predicting the location of moving objects or remembering the location of a previously seen object), where women tend to show a slight advantage on spatial-location memory while men tend to show a slight advantage at spatial visualization (mental rotation)

difference in intelligence performance can be attributed to…

differences in one’s experiences - not genetically determined differences in brain structure or hormones - with motivational factors like stereotype threats and perceived discrimination from people administering the tests exerting a large influence on observed differences

fundamental attribution error:

tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others behaviours

parents and teachers play a large role in how they shape their children’s…

interests - through the early experiences they provide them with and the kinds of messages they receive - both at home and school about which activities are considered boy appropriate and which are girl appropriate, the under representation of women in fields like stem or men in fields like child care cannot be explained by the small differences on cognitive/aptitude tests - its far more likely the differences on tests reflect existing cultural gender norms which are impacting one’s preferences and interests