AP Psychology: Unit 2

Perception, Thinking and Creativity, Memory, Testing and Individual Differences

Perception

The process of interpreting and understanding sensations

Absolute Threshold

Minimal amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time

Just-noticeable Difference

Smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before detecting a change

Weber’s Law

The smallest just noticeable difference is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

Signal Detection Theory

Effects of distractions and interference in perceiving the world, predicts what we perceive among competing stimuli, how motivated we are to detect certain stimuli and what we expect to perceive

False Positive

When we perceive a stimulus that is not there

False Negative

Not perceiving a present stimulus

Top-Down Processing

Filling in gaps in what we sense using background knowledge and context

Schemata/Schema

Mental representations of how we expect the world to be

Perceptual Set

Predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way

Bottom-Up Processing/Feature Analysis

Instead of experience, using features of the object, use individual characteristics for final perception, perception of basic features (eg. horizontal and vertical lines, curves, motion)

Figure-Ground Relationship

Optical illusions: which is foreground? which is background?

Gestalt Rules

Normally perceive images as groups, not isolated elements

Proximity

Objects close to each other are more likely to be perceived as the same group

Similarity

Objects which are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as the same group

Continuity

Objects arranged in a continuous line or curve are more likely to be perceived as the same group

Closure

Recognisable images even if there are a few gaps are more likely to be perceived as the same group

Constancy

Changing angle of vision, light variations yet maintaining constant perception

Size Constancy

Objects closer to our eyes produce bigger images on our retina but distance is taken into account

Shape Constancy

Objects viewed from different angles produce different images on retina, but we know the shape of the object always remains constant.

Brightness Constancy

Light reflecting off an object are ever-changing (brick wall can seem red and grey)

Perceived Motion

Ability to gauge motion, detect how fast images move across our retina (Stroboscopic Effect, Phi Phenomenon, Autokinetic Effect)

Monocular Depth Cues

Do not depend on having two eyes

Linear Perspective

Imply depth in a drawing (railroad)

Relative Size Cue

Certain objects larger than others

Interposition Cue

Objects blocking the view to other objects must be closer to us

Texture Gradient

We can see details in texture close to us but not far away

Binocular Depth Cues

Depend on two eyes

Retinal/Binocular Disparity

Each of our eyes will view an object from a slightly different angle

Convergence

The closer an object, eyes must move together (converge) to keep focus

Extrasensory Perception

Claim to perceive a sensation outside discussions, but psychologists are skeptical and there are no reliable results so far

Prototypes

Concepts are based on…

Algorithms

To try every possible solution with a formula or foolproof method, can be impractical

Heuristics

Rule of thumb, quick but not fully accurate judgement

Availability Heuristic

Based on examples of similar situations, incorrect solutions due to variations in personal experience

Representativeness Heuristic

Based on similarity to prototypes, judging a young person as more likely to commit suicide when the statistics say the opposite

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our judgements

Belief Bias

Illogical conclusions to confirm pre-existing beliefs

Belief Perseverance

Tendency of maintaining a belief despite when the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that a certain event or outcome is more or less likely to occur because of how often it has recently occurred

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Being unwilling to change the course of action after spending a lot of time and effort (even when unlikely to solve)

Mental Set

Rigidity, tendency to fall into established thought patterns, prevents a novel solution

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see a new use for an object

Framing

The idea that the same information can be presented in different ways and drastically change the way we view the issue.

Convergent Thinking

One solution

Divergent Thinking

Multiple possible solutions

Creativity

Unique, novel ideas, divergent thinking

Memory

Encoding, storage and retrieval

Three-Box/Information Processing Model/Multi-Store Model

Consists of sensory, short-term and long-term memory

Sensory Memory

Lasts for a very short period of time, large capacity of information, process of transfer is selective attention

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to perceive something because of being focused on something else

Change Blindness

Failing to observe an obvious change due to selective attention

Short-term/Working Memory

Temporary, fades in 20-30secs, processes feelings and memories

Central Executive

Monitors incoming information and determines which other systems should be involved in processing the information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Visual information, our mind’s eye

Auditory Loops

Deals with numbers/words

Maintenance Rehearsal

Short-term repetition

Elaborative Rehearsal

Effortful processing, mental effort into semantic memory, memories related to the meaning of life

Long-term Memory

Permanent storage, its capacity is unlimited, lasts forever but not truly permanent

Episodic Memory

Memories of specific events

Semantic Memory

Facts, general knowledge

Procedural Memory

Memories of skills and how to perform them

Explicit (Declarative) Memories

What we think of first, conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Unintentional memories (lyrics to songs)

Prospective Memory

Planning for the future

Levels of Processing Model

Explains why we remember what we do

Shallow Encoding

Repetition, easily forgettable

Deeply Encoding

Study the context and research, easy to recall

Long-term Potentiation

Neurons can strengthen connections through repeated firing, long-term memory connections

Encoding

The process of putting information into memories

Primacy Effect

More likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list

Recency Effect

Ability to recall items at the end of a list

Serial Position Effect

Combination of primacy and recency effect

Method of Loci

Using imagery to associate the things you want to remember with various places

Spacing Effect

Divide, eg. chunking

Massed Practice

All together

Anterograde Amnesia

Damage to hippocampus, cannot encode new memories, can recall events in memory

Retrograde Amnesia

Unable to recall information learned before the damage occurred

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory so we can use it

Recognition

Matching a current event or fact with memory

Recall

Retrieving a memory with external cues

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli to help retrieve memories

Tip-of-tongue Phenomenon

Temporary inability of information

Context-dependent Memory

Encoding context clues, these memories are powerful because of their context, for example 9/11

Mood-congruent Memory

The greater likelihood of recalling events in the same mood as our present mood, eg. more likely to recall happy events when happy and sad events when sad

State-dependent Memory

Recalling events encoded while in specific states of consciousness, recalling appointment while sleepy and drowsy

Constructed Memory

Includes false details of an event or might be a recollection of an event which never occurred

Misinformation Effect

Constructed memories feel accurate to the one recalling

Forgetting

Failure to retrieve information

Decay

Forgetting because we don’t use memory connections for a long time

Retroactive Interference

Learning new information interferes with the recall of old information

Proactive Interference

Older information interferes with new information

Split-half Reliability

Randomly dividing a test into two different sections and then correlating people’s performances on the two halves. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1, the greater

Test-Retest Reliability

Correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on a subsequent administration of the test (Replication)

Predictive Validity

Future Performance

Construct Validity

Using another test to correlate both

Aptitude Test

Measure ability or potential

Achievement Test

Measure what one has learned or accomplished

Speed Test

How quickly problems can be solved

Power Test

Increasing difficulty levels