AP European History Unit 4 Illustrative Examples

Scientific, Philosophical and Political Developments - C. 1648-1815

Paracelsus

16th Century Swiss German physician, alchemist, and philosopher who revolutionized medicine by introducing chemical therapies instead of relying solely on traditional herbal remedies. He pioneered the concept that the dose determines whether a substance is a medicine or a poison.

Andreas Vesalius

16th Century Flemish anatomist and physician widely considered the founder of modern human anatomy. He revolutionized the field by basing anatomical studies on direct observation through human dissection rather than relying on the long-dominant, often inaccurate texts of the ancient Greek physician Galen.

Johannes Kepler

16th-17th century German mathematician and astronomer pivotal to the Scientific Revolution. Most famous for developing the three laws of planetary motion, which established that planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths.

Isaac Newton

17th century physican and mathematician best known for formulating the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation - He deduced that the same force causing an object to fall to Earth also governs the orbits of planets.

“The Spirit of the Laws”

Montesquieu’s foundational political treatise advocating for the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to maintain liberty and prevent despotism (absolute power).

“On Crime and Punishments”

Cesare Beccaria’s foundational text of classical criminology that argues for a criminal justice system based on reason, proportionality, and fairness rather than brutality.

Mary Wollstonecraft

18th century pioneering English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights. Best known for her treatise “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” (1792).

Coffeehouses

Functioned as vital social, political, and commercial hubs, often called "penny universities" because a penny admission covered both a cup of coffee and entry into stimulating discussions.

Francois Quesnay

18th century French surgeon and economist who founded the Physiocracy school of economic thought. Highlighted agriculture as the sole source of surplus value.

DavidHume

18th century Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist during the Age of Enlightenment. He is best known for developing an empiricist approach to philosophy, championing skepticism, and arguing that human knowledge is derived solely from experience rather than innate reason.

Baron d’Holbach

18th century Franco-German philosopher and central figure in the French Enlightenment. Advocated that the universe is governed by mechanistic laws, rejecting free will and religion.

German Pietism

Revived in the late 18th and early 19th centuries as a reaction against Enlightenment rationalism, aiming to restore genuine Christianity through personal Bible study, emotional "religion of the heart," and active missions.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

18th century English aristocrat, poet, and writer best known for introducing and advocating for smallpox inoculation to Britain.

Jean-JacquesRousseau

18th century Genevan philosopher who believed human beings are good by nature but are rendered corrupt by society. His ideas fundamentally shaped modern political thought, education, and literature and he was known as the “Father of the French Revolution”.

Painting and portraiture

Emphasised childhood more in this period (1648-1815)

Newspapers

Mass-produced daily by the printing press with early European publications emerging in the 17th century.

The Encyclopédie

A groundbreaking 18th-century French reference work edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Published between 1751 and 1772, it aimed to gather and rationalize all human knowledge, promoting Enlightenment ideals of science, reason, and secular thought.

DiegoVelásquez

17th century leading artist in the court of King Philip IV and a master of the Spanish Golden Age. Known for his exceptional skill in realism and dramatic use of light.

George Frideric Handel

18th century German-born British composer widely regarded as one of the greatest masters of the Baroque era. Served as a court composer to three different monarchs: Queen Anne, George I, and George II.

J. S. Bach

An 18th century renowned German composer and musician of the late Baroque period. Functioned primarily as a court musician and composer seeking patronage. Received the title "Royal Court Composer" from Augustus III of Saxony.

Jan Vermeer

17th century Dutch Baroque painter. His art reflected Enlightenment ideals by focusing on empirical observation, rational perspective, and the dignity of everyday life.

Jacques-LouisDavid

18th-19th century French Neoclassical artist who’s art reflected Enlightenment ideals by championing Neoclassicism, which emphasized rational thought, moral virtue, and civic duty.

DanielDefoe

17th-18th century prolific English writer, journalist. His writing reflected the emerging commercial society through economic individualism, entrepreneurship, and risk-taking.

Jane Austen

18th-19th century English novelist who pioneered the modern novel by focusing on everyday life and social commentary. Her work embodies Enlightenment ideals by emphasizing individual rationality over blind tradition, arguing that personal happiness, rather than mere social duty, should guide critical life choices like marriage.

Frederick II of Prussia

King of Prussia from 1786 until his death. Considered an enlightened ruler because he implemented legal reforms, such as abolishing most uses of judicial torture and promoting greater religious tolerance for Catholics and Jews.

Joseph II of Austria

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg Monarchy from 1780. He implemented sweeping reforms based on rationalism, including abolishing serfdom, granting religious freedom via the Edict of Toleration, and centralizing state administration.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 1740 until her death in 1780. The only woman to hold the position in her own right.

Frederick William I of Prussia

First King of Prussia after the Kingdom of Prussia was established in 1701.