Bio 101L

Discussion of Error

Discussion

Graphs

Appendix

Summary of data and trends

Results

Rationale for Hypotheses

Introduction

Objective Hypothesis

Numerical

Subjective Hypothesis

Qualitative

Gram negative bacteria will stain _____ using Gram stain due to the _____ of their _____

pink; thinness; peptidoglycan

Green to colorless (Green is 520 nm)

The opposite or 700 nm

Light independent reaction takes place in

stroma

______ Happens when the concentration of a solution is higher on the outside ofa plant cell than the inside.

Plasmolysis

An animal cell is placed in a ____ solution. Water will enter the cell and the cell will ____.

hypotonic, burst

Rf

Unitless. Distance traveled by pigment front/overall solvent front

Rate of photosynthesis over 9 minutes with 69.8% and 43.8%

26/9 = 2.88 T/min

Elodea

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Shape:

Plantae

Magnoliophyta

None

Chloroplast/Cell Wall

Shape: Bricks like cell wall.

Volvox

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Plantae

Chlorophyta

Flagella

Parent/Daughter colonies

Shape: Circles

Human Epithelium

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Animalia

Chordata

None

Nucleus, Plasma Membrane

Shape: Look like tissue shapes

Euglena

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Shape:

Protista

Euglenophyta

Flagella

Chloroplast

Shape: Leaf shape with flagella

Paramecium

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Shape:

Protista

Ciliophora

Cilia

Nucleus, Cilia, Food Vacuole

Shoe shape

Amoeba

Kingdom:

Phylum:

Type of movement:

Organelles:

Protista

Amoebozoa

Pseudopods

nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membranes

Shape: Blob shaped

Oscillatoria

Filaments, colonial organisms, photosynthesis

Gleocapsa

Unicellular, clusters, gelatinous sheath

Lactobacillus

Present in yogurt, consumes lactose and converts milk to yogurt, rod-shaped chain

Yeast

Little dots, transform sugars.

Chlorophyll A:

blue-green

Chlorophyll B:

olive green

Chlorophyll C:

in some types of algae

B- Cartorene

Yellow-orange

Xanthophylls

Yellow

Photosynthesis formula

6CO2 + 6H2O →(light) C6H12O6 + 6O2

DNA Extraction

Selection of Sample

Tissue lysis: Break open cells to release contents

Capture and cleaning of DNA

Elution: Remove unwanted molecules/substances

What temperatures do the following processes best work at:

Denaturation:

Annealing:

Elongation:

94-96C

68C

72CX

Polymerase Chain Reaction

1. Denaturation: First, the DNA sample is heated up to separate the double-stranded DNA into two single strands. It's like pulling apart the two sides of a zipper.

2. Annealing: Next, we cool the sample down so that small DNA pieces called primers can attach to each single strand of DNA. These primers mark the starting points for copying.

3. Extension: Now, a special enzyme called taq polymerase adds new DNA nucleotides to the single strands, using the original DNA as a template. This creates two new double-stranded DNA molecules, each starting from one of the original strands.

4. Repeat: The process is then repeated over and over again, each cycle doubling the amount of DNA. So, if you started with one molecule, after one cycle you have two, after two cycles you have four, and so on.

Taq polymerase

Synthesize new DNA strands based on sequential information.

Restriction Enzyme(Enzymatic Digest)

Recognize specific sequences of DNA and cleave near those sites to create fragments for DNA processes.

gel electrophoresis

Smaller molecules move faster and further. it separates pieces of DNA by molecular size and shape so they can be viewed and identified.

Cathode and Annode charges

Negative and Positive. Positioned at either end of gel, runs from negative end to positive end.

Law of Segregation

Each chromosome has equal chance of being passed on.

Law of Independent Assortment

Chromosomes sort into gametes independently

AaBb

9:3:3:1

AaBb * aaBb

3:3:1:1

AaBb * aabb

1:1:1:1

Chi Square

(Observed - Expected)² / Expected Value

PKU

A human metabolic disease caused by a mutation in a gene coding for a phenylalanine processing enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase), which leads to accumulation of phenylalanine and mental retardation if not treated; inherited as an autosomal recessive phenotype.

Breast cancer

a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph nodes and other body sites
** cause by BRCA 1 and BRCA 2

Turner’s Syndrome

-physically appear female (XO); part of x chromosome is missing/damaged
-symptoms: reproductively sterile, lack of unassisted puberty, abnormally short in stature

Cystic Fibrosis

A genetic disorder that occurs in people with two copies of a certain recessive allele; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.

Sickle Cell Anemia

Autosomal Recessive disorder of abnormal hemoglobin producing sickle-shaped erythrocytes and hemolysis

Cri du chat

defective chromosome #5
-* catlike cry; severe physical and mental abnormalities; non lethal

Molluscs

Foot:

Radula:

Shell:

Mantle:

muscular, ventral usually

scraping mouthpart

internal or external

secretes the shell

Adapative Radiaton

Adaptive radiation is the diversification of a group of organisms into different forms to exploit various ecological niches.

Chiton

Scientific Name:

Feeding Behavior:

Radula:

Mantle:

Foot:

Shell:

Siphon:

Location:

Polyplacophora

Scavenger, algae

Slowly using ventral foot

Yes

Yes

Yes

External, 8

No

Rocky land

Clam

Scientific Name:

Feeding Behavior:

Radula:

Mantle:

Foot:

Shell:

Siphon:

Location:

Bivalvia

Filter feeder

Burrows through foot

No

Yes

Yes

External, growth lines

Intakes w/one and filters w/other

Fresh and deep water

Squid

Scientific Name:

Feeding Behavior:

Radula:

Mantle:

Foot:

Shell:

Siphon:

Location:

Cephalopoda

Predator

Modified foot called siphon

Yes

Yes

No

Internal

Used for movement

Deep water

Snail

Scientific Name:

Feeding Behavior:

Radula:

Mantle:

Foot:

Shell:

Siphon:

Location:

Gastropoda

Scavenger/Predator

Creeping broad foot

Yes

Yes

Yes

External

No

Water and land

Cofactors

Inorganic ions sometimes required for enzymatic activity.

Chelating agents.

Chemical compounds that bind tightly to metallic ions.

How does chelating agent work?

Chelating agent blocks binding of cofactor to enzyme by binding the cofactor

Enzyme Reaction

Catechol + oxygen (→ catecholase) benziquinone + water

What are calcium and magnesium bound by

EDTA

What is copper bound by

Citric Acid and PTU

Why is benziquinone at 540 nm?

It absorbs green light, hence the red-brown color.

Caudal

Towards tail

Dorsal

Towards back

Ventral

Towards belly

Proximal

Towards middle

Distal

Towards exterior

Ductus Arteriosis is hole between

aorta and pulmonary artery

Foramen ovale is hole between

Right atrium and left atrium

Oxygenated in fetus, deoxygenated in adult

Vena cava, right atrium

Oxygenated

Pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, body

Deoxygenated

Right ventricle, Pulmonary artery, lungs

What brings in blood and pushes it out

Atrium brings in and ventricles push out, aorta helps be more specific with oxygen-rich blood.

Urogenital Papilla

Bud-like protrusion ventral to anus in females

Scrotum

Two slightly round patches near hind legs, protects the testes.

male urogenital opening

Posterior from umbilical cord near ventral side, tip of penis.

epitrichium

Outermost layer of skin in developing embryos.

Umbilical vein

oxygenated blood from placenta to fetus

Thoracic Cavity

Protects the heart and lugs

Abdominal cavity

Protescts the stomach, liver, intestines.

Liver

Bile production, filtering toxins from blood, metabolism of fats.

Gall bladder

Store and push bile to small intestine when needed

small intestine

Connects stomach to large intestine, where most breakdown takes place.

bile duct

The bile duct is a tube that carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine

bile

Digestive fluid

dura mater

Layer of membrane that protects the brain and spinal cord.

Meconium

First stool passed by newborn baby, greenish-black

Spleen

Filter for blood, reserve for blood

Stomach

Breaking down food and passing it into small intestine

Pyloric Sphincter

Regulate passage of food from stomach to small intestine.

Caecum

Connects large intestine to small intestine

Rectum

Store feces until ready for expulsion

Colon

Absorbing water, forming feces, and eliminating waste from body.

Epiglottis

Prevent food and liquid from entering air pipes.

Glottis

Speech production and breathing

Pharynx

Connects nasal cavity and mouth to esophagus and larynx

Eshophagus

Digestive function

Thyroid

Produces hormones that regulate metabolism.

Thymus

Produces T lymphocytes.

Duodenum

part of small intestine that breaks down food further.

Pancreas

Produces hormones that regulate sugar levels and secretes digestive enzymes.