IB Exam Revision - Geography HL

Population

It is the total number of people living in a given area at a given time.

Population distribution

It refers to the spread of a population in a given area. It could be sparsely, moderately, or densely distributed.

Population Density

The average number of people living in a given area per squared kilometers.

Birth Rate

It is the average number of children born per 1000 population per year.

Death Rate

The number of people who die per 1000 people per year.

Fertility Rate

It is the average number of children that a woman is expected to bear in her lifetime.

Infant Mortality

The number of babies who die before their first birthday, per live birth.

Child Mortality

Number of children who die before their fifth birthday, per live birth.

Population Structure

The structure of a population describes the distribution of the population in terms of the sex and age groups.

Population Pyramid

A graph that depicts the structure of the population in terms of the sex and age groups.

Youthful population

Population within the age groups of 0-14. It is also called the children population.

Working Population

Age group that ranges between 15 and 64. There are two types: the economically active (those actively working)and the economically inactive population (those who are unemployed or still in school).

Aging Population

Age group above 64 year. They are also called the elderly population.

Dependency Ratio

Ratio of the dependent population to the working or economically active population. It is calculated in the formula:DR = (0-14) + (65+)/(15 – 64)

Pro-Natalist Policy

Policy aimed at increasing the population or birth rate of a country. Eg. France, Sweden and Singapore have pro-natalist policies

Anti-Natalist Policies

A policy that is aimed at reducing population growth or birth rate. E.g China’s One-Child Policy.

Migration

The movement of people from one place to another, either permanently, seasonally, voluntarily or forced. It involves a change in residence.

External Migration

Migration across national boundaries.

Internal Migration

Movement of people within a country.

Natural Change

Changes in population due to changes in birth and death rates. Difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate.

Natural Increase

Increase in population due to an increase in birth over death in a country.

Natural Decrease

Decline in population due to an increase in death over birth in a country.

Population Momentum

Tendency for population to grow despite a fall in birth rate and fertility levels. This happens when the number of women of childbearing increases in number such that they give birth faster than the death rate.

Population Projection

Future population estimates based on the current age-gender structure/fertility, mortality and migration

Doubling Time

Period of time taken for population to increase twice its size, assuming natural growth rate remains unchanged.

Replacement Rate

The level at which each generation has enough children to replace themselves in a given population.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

It describes the way the total population of a country changes over time, taking into consideration birth and death rates. The model suggests that mortality and fertility would decline as a result of social and economic development. It predicts that all countries would go through four demographic transition stages over time.

Family Size

A group of people who make common provision of food, shelter and other essentials for living.

Sex Ratios

Ratio of males to females in a given population. Or, it is the number of males per 100 females in a population.

Demographic Dividend

Increase in the number of adults in a population between 15 and 64. OR An increase in the number of people in the working population of a country. More people have the potential to be productive and contribute to economic growth.

Low Income Countries

Those with a per capita income of less than $1,025.

Middle Income Countries

Those with a per capita income of between $1,026 and $12,475.

High Income Countries

Those with a per capita income over $12,476

Core-periphery patterns

The uneven spatial distribution of national population and wealth between 2 or more regions of a state or country, resulting from flows of migrants, trade and investment.

Push and Pull Factors

Push factors are reasons that people leave an area. Pull factors are reason that attract people to move there.

Next Eleven

The countries that have potentially the fastest growing economies in the 21st century such as Bangladesh, Egypt, the Philippines, South Korea and Vietnam.

Natural Greenhouse Effect

The natural process that warms the earth’s surface due to incoming solar radiation from the sun, with a portion being reflected into space, and some being absorbed by earth and the greenhouse gases.

Climate Change

Long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns. Such shifts an be natural, however, since industrial revolution, human activity has been the main driver of climate change.

Greenhouse Gases

Those atmospheric gases that absorb infrared radiation and cause world temperatures to be warmer than they would otherwise be.

Carbon Footprint Per Capita

The amount of carbon dioxide emissions an average person in a country is responsible for as they go about their everyday lives.

Feedback Loops

Positive feedback loops amplify change that starts to occur.
Negative feedback occurs when the system adjust itself in ways that reverses the effect of the original change.

Solar Radiation Variations

Amount of solar radiation entering the Earth’s atmosphere can change in the short and long term due to volcanic emissions, solar output, changes to the earth’s orbit and cosmic collisions.

Global Dimming (volcanic eruptions)

Small, suspended matter in the atmosphere can reflect solar energy back into space and so have a net cooling effect. This phenomenon can occur naturally because of volcanic emissions but can also be caused by human pollution too.

Albedo

How much solar radiation a surface reflects. White surfaces have the highest albedo, or reflectivity.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

Disruption to the earth’s climate due to an increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased global surface temperatures.

Hydrosphere

The world’s water cycle and stores (major ice sheets, glaciers and sea ice has shrunk recently meaning the cryosphere has shrunk- i.e. the portion of earth’s surface water in solid form)

Atmosphere

The layer of gases that surround our planet and are held in place by gravity. The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases.

Biosphere

The world’s ecosystems, flora and fauna

Carbon Emission Trading

These schemes are an example of climate change mitigation using a CAP and trade system.

Energy Budget

Refers to the balance between the amount of energy incoming to the Earth from the Sun and the amount of energy outgoing from Earth back into space.

Equilibrium

State where opposing forces or influences are balanced. The Earth’s thermal equilibrium refers to the balance in solar energy, meaning the Earth must radiate as much heat as it receives, an imbalance in output or input of heat would cause the Earth to heat up or cool down.

Shortwave radiation

Radiant energy produced by the Sun, ranging from infrared to ultraviolet. Shortwave radiation is exclusively associated with daylight hours for particular locations on the Earth's surface.

Long-wave radiation

Radiation emitted by the Earth back out into space (infrared radiation).

Diffuse Radiation

The solar radiation that is absorbed, scattered, or reflected by molecules and particles in the atmosphere, such as clouds or atmospheric gasses.

Insolation

Insolation is the amount of incoming solar energy that makes contact with the surface of the Earth. Generally how much something is exposed to solar energy.

Troposphere

Lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere in direct contact with the Earth's surface. Weather phenomena and clouds occur in this layer.

Stratosphere

Layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the troposphere. This layer is vital for protecting living organisms on Earth from harmful UV rays because it scatters the rays.

Turning (tipping) point

Time at which a situation starts to change in an important way. Or the smallest amount of change that could result in a new equilibrium, and consequences could be irreversible.

Civil Society

Refers to the space in society that exists outside of the family, market, and state, encompassing a diverse range of organizations and groups that operate independently to represent the interests and values of citizens. (NGOs, charities, community groups)

Adaptation

In the context of climate change, this refers to actions that reduce vulnerability to climate change and address the impacts of it.

Mitigation

In the context of climate change, this refers to reducing greenhouse gasses emissions and rather addresses the main causes of climate change and tackling it.

Geo-Engineering

Geoengineering refers to large-scale manipulation in the Earth’s oceans, soils, and atmosphere with the aim of reducing the effects of climate change, usually temporarily. There is Carbon Dioxide Removal and Solar Radiation Management.

External forcing

Refers to natural changes that affect the climate. This can be albedo, volcanic eruptions, or solar flares.

Carbon offseting

Actively reducing carbon emissions or actively compensation for the emissions released.

Carbon Trading

Limits of carbon emissions are placed on countries. They can trade with others to buy a greater capacity to emit more carbon.

Carbon Tax

Fee imposed on businesses and consumers to compensate for damage caused by carbon emissions or to pay for adaptation/mitigation measures.

Geo-engineering techniques (examples)

• Afforestation

• Carbon Capture

• Stratospheric aerosol

Ecological Footprint

The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology.

Biocapacity

The capacity of an area to provide resources and absorb wastes. When the area’s ecological footprint exceeds its biocapacity, an ecological deficit occurs

Carbon Footprint

The total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly or indirectly by an individual, organization, product, or activity, measured in tonnes of CO₂-equivalent. It helps compare climate impacts and guide reduction strategies.

Resource Security

Refers to the reliable and sustainable access to natural resources such as water, energy, and raw materials necessary for economic and social well-being. It involves managing supply risks and environmental impacts

Overshoot Day

A theoretical concept that marks the date when humanity’s demand for ecological resources and services in a given year exceeds what Earth can regenerate in that year.

Natural Capital

Comprises of all renewable and non-renewable natural resources and ecosystem services that provide goods and benefits essential for human survival and economic activity, including air, water, minerals, plants, and animals.

New Global Middle Class

Consists of individuals or households in developing countries who have risen above poverty levels to attain moderate income and consumption levels, typically spending more than US$12 a day. This group is growing rapidly.

Unsustainable

Describes practices or patterns of resource use that deplete natural capital faster than it can be replenished.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum population size or level of resource consumption that an environment can sustain indefinitely without degrading its natural resources or ecosystem health.

Ecological Debtor

A country or region that uses more ecological resources (such as land, water, and energy) than its own ecosystems can regenerate within its borders, resulting in an ecological deficit.

Global Hectare

A standardized unit measuring the bioproductive area (in hectares) with world-average productivity is used to quantify human demand on the environment (ecological footprint) or Earth's biocapacity. It represents the area required to produce resources and absorb wastes for one person or activity

Ecological Creditor

A country or region that has more ecological resources than it uses, meaning its ecosystems produce a surplus of bioproductive capacity. This country has an ecological reserve.

Embedded/ Virtual Water

The total volume of freshwater used (directly and indirectly) to produce a product or service, including water used throughout the supply chain and transport. Virtual water is "hidden" in goods like food, clothing, and manufactured items.

Economic Water Scarcity

A condition where water resources physically exist in a region, but economic, institutional, or infrastructural limitations prevent people from accessing or effectively using the water. Causes include poor water management, lack of investment, and political factors.

Physical Water Scarcity

Where water resource development is approaching or has exceeded unsustainable levels, it relates water availability to water demand and implies that arid areas are not necessarily water scarce.

FEW NEXUS

Refers to the very close links between water, food, and energy, and the ways in which changes in one sector have an impact on one or both of the other sectors. It stresses the need for stewardship of these resources.

Water Security

When all people at all times have sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable-quality water for sustainable livelihoods, well-being, and development.

Energy security

When all people, at all times, enjoy the uninterrupted availability of the energy they require to meet their needs, at an affordable price.

Food security

When all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Resource Stewardship

An approach to resource management that views humans as ‘caretakers’ of the natural world. It encourages a sustainable and responsible approach to managing resources that looks towards the needs of future generations.

Circular economy

From ‘cradle to cradle’. An approach to business management and product design that maximises the efficiency of resource use and aims ultimately to phase out waste and pollution altogether by making the producer accountable.

Linear economy

A system that uses natural resources wastefully, as resources are extracted, manufactured, transported, used, and then end up in waste at a landfill.

Global interactions

All of the varied economic, social, political, cultural, and environmental processes that make up globalization. It also encompasses the many local opposition movements and new cultural forms that result when globalizing forces meet and interact with local societies and stakeholders.

Global hubs

A settlement or state that is highly connected with other places and through which an unusually large volume of global flows is channeled.

Globalization

The growing interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and through the rapid diffusion of technology.

TIme-space convergence

The development of technologies that overcome the frictional effect of distance and time. A basic requirement for the evolution of international trade and the development of TNCs.

Global superpower

A nation or group of nations with a leading position in international politics.

Neo-colonial

The indirect actions by which developed countries exercise a degree of control over the development of their former colonies.

Soft power

The power of persuasion or diplomacy. It is the capacity to influence individuals, communities, and nations without the use of force or coercion, typically through culture, policies, and moral authority.

Hard power

The power of force. This includes military action, economic sanctions, trade, and aid policies.

Network

An illustration or model that shows how different places are linked together by connections or flows.

Loans

The transfer of money or skills that require repayment over a set time.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Is the investment by a company into the structures, equipment, or organization of a foreign country. It is a financial injection made by a TNC into a nation’s economy.