Unit 9: Human Development

development psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Ecological Systems Theory

a theory of the social environment's influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

microsystem

direct contact groups

mesosystem

relationships between microsystem groups

exosystem

environments that indirectly affect a person

macrosystem

cultural influences

chronosystem

life stage and related events

attachment

Familiarity, Body contact, Responsiveness

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

strange situation (Mary Ainsworth)

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

personal fable

belief held by many adolescents telling them they are special and unique

illusion of invulnerability

adolescents' belief that misfortunes cannot happen to them

adolescent egocentrism

the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents (imaginery audience

preconventional

based on consequence (reward/punishment)

conventional

based on sciety's rules, to conform to the standards that we value, doing things for the greater good

Postconventional

based on personal ethic principles, and universal rights

0-1

Trust vs Mistrust, will the world provide for me?

2-3

Autonomy vs Shame/doubt, Am I ok on my own?

3-5

Iniative vs. Guilt, Can I decide what to do?

5-puberty

Industry vs Inferiarity, Can I be productive in the world?

12-20

Identity vs Role Confusion, Who am I?

20-40

Intimacy vs. Isolation, can I trust another person to love unconditionally

40-65

Generativity vs Stagnation, Am I useful to the world?

65+

Intengrity vs. Despair, Did I lead a good and fulfilling life?

avoidant attachment

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

anxious attachment

children are overly dependent on their parent and show extreme distress when separated and when caregivers come back, the children hesitate to engage in comfort → can result in the fear of abandonment

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

Foreclosure

when an individual has a high degree of commitment to a particular identity or idea

Diffusion

when an individual has not committed to a set idea or identity and has not explored ay possibilities, often resulting in a lack of direction

Moratorium

individual is actively exploring their identity and possibly options, but does not have a commitment to one particular identity or idea just yet

Achievement

when an individual has a set identity and has explored their options → able to come to their own conclusion about their identity and not rely on someone else's