ANatomy Fianls

Planes:

-Median (midsagittal)(sagittal)-Frontal (Coronal)-Transverse Plane

Exact Terms are used for:

-Position-directional-Regions-Structures

Orientation and directional terms:

-Superior and Inferior-Anterior and Posterior-Medial and Lateral-Intermediate and Proximal-Superficial and Deep-Distal

What are the 4 primary adult tissue types?

1. Epithelial2. Connective3. Muscular4. Neural

What are the different types/shapes of Epithelial tissue?

1. Simple Squamous2. Simple Cuboidal3. Simple Columnar4. Stratified Squamous5. Stratified Cuboidal6. Stratified Columnar7. Granular Epithelium

What are the general characteristics of CT?

1. Specialized cells2. Solid extracellular protein fibers3. Fluid extracellular ground substance4. Common orgin - mesenchyme5. Different degrees of vascularity

What are some major structural differences between that and Epithelial tissue?

Epithelial tissue lines the cavities of organs/covers exposed surfaces; while connective tissue supports, connects and separates different tissues and organs

Besides cells, what are the other two components that CT is composed of?

matrix and extracellular fibers (also has collagen and elastic)

What is the matrix made up of?

1. Fibers and Ground Substance2. Majority of tissue volume3. Determines specialized function

What is ground substance?

Fluid extracellular (liquidish mineral substance), homogenous intercellular substance of tissue

What are the three CT fiber types and name the types of cells that may compose CT?

1. Collagen-Strongest and most abundant-Ex: Found in tendons and ligaments2. Elastic-Long and thin, able to stretch and recoil-Ex: elastic ligaments of vertebrae3. Reticular-Short and fine, form networks-Ex: sheaths around organs

What are the 3 types of Epithelial membrane?

1. Mucous Membranes-In cavities opening onto the body surface (mouth, anus)-In organs that form part of the tube opening on the surface (stomach, respiratory tract)2. Serous Membranes-Line on body cavities not opening to the outside and covers the organs within them (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)-Visceral part covers the organs-Parietal part lines the cavity walls3. Cutaneous Membranes-Skin, dry membrane

What are some major structures within Muscle and Nervous tissues?

Muscle tissue: specialized for contractionNeural tissue: carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

1. Endocrine: secretes directly into the intercellular space2. Exocrine: secretes into ducts that open onto a surface

What is the difference between merocrine and apocrine glands?

1. Merocrine Glands-Most common-Mainly palms, soles of feet, forehead-Produces watery mixture of salts, antibodies, and metabolic wastes2. Apocrine Glands-Open onto hair follicles-Secretion is thicker- source of body odor due to bacteria-Start at puberty; may be analogous to the sexual scent glands of other animals

What tissue types compose the epidermis and dermis?

-epidermis: stratified squamous ET-Dermis: areolar and dense irregular CT

Stratum Basal (germinatrum)

-The deepest layer-Closest to the dermal blood supply-Single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells-Mitotic layer-Keratinization (waterproof) happens here (This makes sense because cells are made here)

Stratum spinosum (second layer)

-Cells become irregularly shaped; separated by narrow translucent clefts (moving away from nutrients)-Spine-like cytoplasmic extensions interconnect the cells (spinous cells)

Stratum granulosum (third layer)

-In thick skin - a few layers of flattened cells-thin skin - only 1 layer may be visible-Nuclei begin to degenerate

Stratum lucidum (fourth layer) (clear layer)

-Several layers of flattened dead cells-Faint nuclear outlines are visible in only a few calls-Tough to identify in thin skin

Stratum corneum (fifth layer)

-About 30 years thick (¾ of epidermis)-Individual cells are difficult to observe because-Nuclei are gone/barely visible (dead)-Very flat-Space between cells is filled with lipids - cement the cells together-Protection of the body due to this layer

Dermis

Dermis: numerous collagen and elastic fibers; thickest layer of skinDermal Papillae: create irregular border between epidermis and dermis, found in thick skinReticular: composed of dense irregular CT, well vascularized, rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply. (thick bottom layer of dermis/inner layer of skin)

What factors normally contribute to skin color?

Reddish skin-due to hemoglobin in the red blood cells, which pass through the capillaries beneath the epidermisCarotene- (yellowish pigment)-Accumulates in adipocytes found in the dermis and hypodermisMelanocytes-Make melanin-brown pigment; protects DNA of mitotic basal cells from UV damage-In the epidermis-Melanosomes - organelles that contain melanin-Transfer melanin to keratinocytes - mainly to basal cells

What are a few other factors that attribute to change is skin color based on homeostatic imbalances (disease)?

Homeostatic imbalances:-Albinism: melanocytes completely fail to secrete melanin- hair and skin can be white-Vitiligo: loss of pigment in certain areas-freckles/moles- melanin becomes concentrated in local areasOther Skin Coloration:-Cyanosis - bluishskin due to poorly oxygenated blood-Blushing and going pale - dilation and constriction of blood vessels, respectivelyResponse to disease:-Jaundice- bilirubin is deposited in skin; diseasded liver is unable to excrete this pigment-Bruise - indicates clotting in broken blood vessels

Sweat Glands:

-Distributed everywhere except the nipples and parts of the external genitalia-Millions per person; two forms-Prevents overheatingTypes:-eccrine /Merocrine glands (most common)-Mainly palms, soles of feet, and forehead-Produces watery mixture of salts, antibodies, and metabolic wastes-Apocrine glands- armpits, anogenital areas, and areolar of the breasts-Open onto fair follicles-Secretion is thicker - source of body odor due to bacteria-Starts at puberty, may be analogous to the sexual scent glands of others

Sebaceous glands (oil):`

-Secret sebum-Everywhere except on the palms and soles-Secretes into hair folliclesPurpose:-Keeps hair from becoming brittle; skin softness-Prevents excessive evaporation-Contains a bacterial agent that inhibits the growth of a certain bacteria

Name two modified apocrine glands of the skin and discuss the functions of each.

Ceruminous glands - earwaxMammary glands - milk

Describe the functional relationship of arrector pili muscles to the hair follicle.

The functional relationship of the arrector pili muscles to the hair follicle is since the arrector pili muscle causes goosebumps, it will generate the hair follicle to stand up since the muscle is contracting.

What are two major types of hair found on the body and the locations of each?

-Vellus hair: pale, fine hair found on children and females-Terminal hair: coarse, longer hair of eyebrows and scalp

How are nails structured?

-Stratified tissue with hard keratin-Protect distal ends of phalanges-Cuticle: fold of stratum corneum on the proximal end of nail

What are at least 6 different functions of the skin?

-Protection of underlying tissues and organs; protects against fluid loss and micro-organisms-Excretion of salts, water, and organic wastes (glands)-Maintenance of body temperature (insulation and evaporation)-Production of melanin-Production of keratin-Synthesis of Vitamin D3-Storage of lipids-Detection of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

Malignant Melanoma

-cancer of melanocytes-Most lethal, least common-Highly metastatic (spreads)-Resistant to chemotherapy-Usually appears as spreading brown or red splotch-Early detection is essential

Basal Cell Carcinoma

-Least malignant, most common-Occur most often on sun-exposed surfaces-Shiny dome-shaped nodule that later develops a central ulcer with a pearly beaded edge

Squamous cell carcinoma

-arises from keratinocytes-Scaly, reddened papule most often on the head (scalp and ears) and hands-Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not removed

Why are serious burns life threatening?

-Catastrophic loss of body fluids containing proteins and electrolytes, which results in dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.-Can lead to kidney shutdown and cardiac shock(reduced blood volume)-Infection- leading cause of death in burn patients because of pathogens invading where the skin barrier is destroyed.-Immune system becomes deficient

1st degree:

-Only epidermis damaged-Erythema, mild edema, surface layer sheds-Healing: a few days to two weeks-No scarring

2nd degree:

-Destroy epidermis-Blisters form-Healing depend on survival of accessory organs-No scars unless infected

3rd degree:

-Destroys epidermis, dermis and accessory organs of the skin-Healing occurs from margins inward.-Skin grafting may be needed-Autograft: tissue is taken from one site on same person-Homograft: tissue or organ transplant from another person

How is keratin protective?

It helps support your skin, heal wounds, and keep your nails and hair healthy. If the skin didn't have that then the skin wouldn't be waterproof and would break.

What is the pigment responsible for skin and hair color and the cell that makes it?

-Melanin is the pigment responsible for skin and hair color-Made by melanocytes

What is the structure and function of the subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)?

-Subcutaneous Layer: Hypodermis-Beneath epidermis and dermis-Mostly adipose tissue-Anchors skin-Shock absorber/insulator

What are four examples of epidermal derivatives?

-Sweatglands-Sebaceous or oil glands-Hair-Nails

What are the functional properties of cartilage tissue?

1. Hyaline Cartilage- provides support with flexibility and resilience2. Elastic Cartilage - very flexible; found in external ear and epiglottis3. Fibrocartilage -highly compressible, great tensile strength, occurs in areas that have both heavy pressure and compression

Where are the major cartilages of the adult skeleton located?

1. Hyaline Cartilage/articular cartilage- lines joints and caps the ends of your bones2. Elastic Cartilage- external ear and epiglottis3. Fibrocartilage- points of attachment from tendons to bones

Axial Skeleton

-skull , hyoid bone, vertebral column, thoracic cage, sternum-Supports and protects brain, spinal cord and organs

Appendicular skeleton

-Limbs and girdles, bones that connect to pectoral and pelvic girdles-supports the attachment and functions of the upper and lower limbs of the human body.

What are the six bone classes/shapes and an example of each ?

1. Long bones EX. femur, humerus, phalanges2. Short Bones EX. carpals, tarlsals3. Sesamoid bones EX. patella4. Wormian bones EX. extra bone piece w/in suture in the cranium5. Flat bones EX. cranium, ribs, sternum6. Irregular (vertebrae, pelvis)

List and describe five important functions of bones

1. Support the body2. Protects soft organs3. Movement due to attached skeletal muscles4. Stores growth factors5. Storage of minerals and fats6. Blood cell formation

Anatomy of a Long bone

-Longer than wide-Shaft with heads at both ends-Mostly compact bone

Anatomy of a flat bone

-Thin and flat, usually curved-Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone

Periosteum

-Covers Diaphysis-Fibrous tissue double-layer membrane-Has: Nerve fibers, lymphatic vessels, blood vessels-Anchor point for tendons and ligaments

Endosteum

-Delicate CT membrane-Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone, lines canals that pass through compact bone

Articular Cartilage

-Covers surface of the epiphyses-Hyaline Cartilage-Decreases friction in the joint

Yellow Marrow

-In the medullary cavity of the shaft of long bones-stores fat

Red Marrow

-In the medullary cavity of flat bones-Has stems cells that grow into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

Compare the functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts

1. Osteocytes - primary cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix2. Osteoblasts: cells responsible for forming new bone3. Osteoclasts: break down bone for remodeling and release of calcium

Explain and describe the 4 internal steps of a fracture repair

1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed/seals fracture site2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus3. Fibrocartilage callus is turned into a bony callus by osteoblasts4. Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch by osteoclasts

Osteoporosis:

-Bone breakdown occurs faster than formation-Bones become weak and porous

Osteomalacia:

-Inadequate mineralization-Most frequent cause is lack of vitamin d/sunlight-Bones become soft and deformed

Paget's Disease:

-A haphazard bone deposit and resorption-Abnormally high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone

Featues of joint:

-Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)-Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule-Joint cavity with synovial fluid-Ligaments reinforce the joint

Structures associated with joint:

-Bursae - flattened fibrous sacs, lined with synovial membranes, filled with synovial fluid-Tendon sheath - elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon, friction reducing

What are the different types of synovial joints and what are some examples of places they can be found?

1. Plane Joint- gliding (Ex. carpals)2. Hinge Joint- (Ex. elbows, knees)3. Pivot Joint- (Ex. Ulna, radius)4. Condyloid- (Ex. phalanges, metacarpals)5. Saddle Joint- (Ex. Carpal, metacarpal #1)6. Ball and Socket Joint- (Ex. Head of humerus, scapula)

Osteoarthritis

-Most common chronic arthritis-Probably related to normal aging processes

Rheumatoid arthritis

-Autoimmune disease- the immune system attacks the joints-Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints-Often leads to deformities

Gouty Arthritis

-Inflammation of joints caused by deposition of urate crystals from the blood-Can usually be controlled with a diet

Cardiac muscle

-Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc-Involuntary (in heart)-Steady pace/doesn't tire

Smooth muscle

-No striations-Spindle - shaped cells-Single nucleated-Involuntary-Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs-Slow, sustained, and tireless

Skeletal muscle

-Striated-Multinucleated-Mostly attached by tendons to bones-Voluntary-Bundled by connective tissue-great force, but tires easily

Differences between the basic types of muscle tissue:

smooth muscle is not striated, cardiac branches out, smooth is single nucleated while skeletal is multinucleated. Different levels of force/voluntary

What are the four important functions of muscle tissue?

1. Irritability: can receive/ respond to stimulus2. Contractibility: can shorten due to an adequate stimulus3. Extensibility: can be stretched/extended4. Elasticity: can recoil back to original length

How are skeletal muscles structured?

-Striated and multinucleated-Bundled by connective tissue-Endomysium: around single muscle fiber-Perimysium: around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers-Epimysium: covers the entire muscle-Fascia: outside of the epimysium

What is the smallest functional/contractile unit?

Sarcomere

Myofibrils

-Bundles of myofilaments, have distinct bands-1 band= light band-A band= dark band

T tubules

-Extension of sarcolemma that goes deep into the muscle cell-Occurs at each A band- 1 band junction

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

-Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum, holds Ca+2

Sliding Filament Theory:

-Activation by nerve causes myosin heads (cross bridges) to attach to binding sites on thin filaments-Myosin heads then bind to the next site of thin filament-Continued action causes a sliding of the myosin head along the actin-Result = Muscle is shortened (contraction)

Cross Bridge Cycle

1. Calcium ions (Ca2+) are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. They bind to Troponin which causes tropomyosin to rotate and expose binding sites on the actin filament.2. The myosin head attaches to the actin filament and releases the inorganic phosphate which strengthens the bond.3. ADP is released from the myosin head causing it to pivot and pull the actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere.4. Another ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head causing it to detach from the actin filament.5. ATP is HYDROLYZED into inorganic phosphate and ADP and the energy moves the myosin head back into the cocked position.6. Calcium ions leave troponin which causes tropomyosin to rotate and cover the binding sites.

What is a motor unit?

-One neuron-Muscle cells stimulated by that neuron

How are muscle fibers stimulated to contract?

-Neuromuscular junction/cross bridge cycle (actin filament being pulled to the middle of the sarcomere)

Isotonic Contraction

-Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions-Muscle shortens (concentric) or lengthen (eccentric)

Isometric Contraction

-Tension in muscle increases-Muscle is unable to shorten

What are the 3 ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction

-direct phosphorylation-aerobic respiration-anaerobic respiration

direct phosphorylation

-Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP) = high-energy molecule-CP transfers energy to ADP to regenerate ATP-CP supplies are exhausted in about 15-20 seconds

Anaerobic Glycolysis (Respiration)

-Breaks down glucose without oxygen, into pyruvic acid to produce ATP (2 per glucose)-Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid-Not as efficient, but is fast

Aerobic Respiration

-Metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria-Glucose is broken down to CO2 and H2O releasing energy-Slower reaction that requires continuous O2 (36 ATP per glucose)

Muscle Fatigue

-When tired/fatigue, muscle is unable to contract-Common reason for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt-Increasing acidity from lactic acid and lack of ATP causes muscles to contract less

Oxygen Debt

-Buildup of lactic acid and ATP-Oxygen must be "repaid" to tissue to regenerate ATP-Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid

What are 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers? What are their relative values?

1. Fast Glycolytic Fibers (fast twitch)- fatigable (anaerobic, fatigue)2. Slow Oxidative Fibers (slow twitch)- fatigue resistant (aerobic)3. Fast Oxidative Fibers- mostly fatigue resistantMost muscles are a mixture of all three typesMuscle use = increase in size, strength, efficiency, fatigue resistance

What is the function of prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators?

-Prime Movers (agonist): responsibility for certain movement-Antagonists: opposes/reverses prime mover-Synergist: aids prime mover in movement and prevents rotation-Fixator: immobilizes one or more bones/stabilizes

First class lever

-effort at one end and load at the other end with the fulcrum somewhere in between-i.e.: seesaw, head noddingEFL

Second class lever

-effort applied at one end and fulcrum at the other end with the load somewhere in between-i.e.: wheelbarrow, calf raiseELF

Third class lever

-effort is applied somewhere between the load and fulcrum-i.e.: tweezers and bicep curlFEL

What are adduction and abduction, flexion and extension, rotation, and circumduction? Give examples for each.

-Flexion: decreases angle of joint and brings joints together (bending knee)-Extension: increases angle of joint and brings them apart (Straightening knee)-Rotation: movement of bone along axis (longitudinal) (rotating neck)-Abduction: movement limb away from midline of the body (separating fingers)-Adduction: movement bringing limb closer to the midline (closing fingers)-Circumduction: moving a limb so that it makes a cone in space (moving wrist)

Events at Neuromuscular Junction:

1. Nerve impulse reaches end of the axon terminal2. Calcium channels in the axon membrane open allowing Ca2+ to flow into the axon terminal3. Presence of Ca2+ causes some of the synaptic vesicles to fuse to the axonal membrane and release ACh into the synaptic cleft.4. ACh diffuses across the cleft and attaches to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma5. Sarcolemma becomes permeable to NA+6. Na+ rushing into the cell generates an action potentialCross Bridge Cycle starts7. Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped.8. Acetylcholinesterase(ACHe) recycles now-released ACh back into the axon terminal

Property of muscles refer to their ability to be stretched

Extensible

type of tissue that insulates, supports, cushions

Adipose Tissue

Each muscle fiber is covered by which connective tissue layer

Endomysium

Tissue

A group of similar specialized cells that are organized and work together to carry out specific functions

Most superficial layer of the skin made up of stratified squamous ET

epidermis