unit 5

1st step of urine formation

blood is filtered in the glomerulus

2nd step of urine formation

substances like water and electrolytes are reabsorbed

3rd step of urine formation

secretion, additional waste products are added to the forming urine

4th step of urine formation

Only waste and excess fluid leave the body as urine

Arterial blood gas (ABG)

the most accurate test for oxygen and breathing status

Absorption speed rule

if stool moves too fast there is less absorption

Accessory muscle use

using neck, shoulder, or chest muscles to help breathe because normal breathing isn't enough.

Aerosol therapy

Liquid med to mist

Helps open airways
Loosens mucus
Goes straight to lungs

Aerosol therapy

a machine or inhaler turns liquid medication into a fine mist so it goes straight into your lungs

Afterload

how hard the heart has to push against to get blood out

more resistance = harder to pump

Airway hyperactivity

airways react strongly and constrict

airway obstruction Causes

mucus

plugs

inflammation

Alveoli

tiny air sacs in the lungs where oxygen goes into the blood and CO₂ comes out.

Anal fissures

small cuts or tears in the skin around the anus that cause sharp pain and bright red blood on the toilet paper

Angiography

uses dye to outline blood vessels and find blockages or aneurysms

Anticholinergic medications

used for slowing things down in the body

blocks the parasympathetic system

cause urinary retention bc they relaxes bladder

Anuria

No urine output

< 4 cc/hr

aorta

comes out of the left ventricle and sends blood to every part of the body except the lungs

biggest artery of body

Apnea

when a person stops breathing completely for a moment.

arterial (artery) blood

measured to see how much oxygen is really being delivered to the body

Arterial Blood Gas (ABG)

blood test from an artery that measures oxygen, CO₂, and pH.

Arterial blood gas (ABG)

measures oxygen, CO₂, and pH from arterial blood

Arterial Oxygen Saturation (SpO₂)

percentage of oxygen in the blood measured by pulse ox.

Ascending colostomy

stoma created in the ascending colon producing liquid stool with strong odor

asphyxiation

when the airway gets blocked and the person cannot get enough oxygen to breathe, leading to suffocation

Asystole

no electrical activity in the heart, causing a flatline and no heartbeat

Atelectasis

alveoli collapse, so oxygen can't pass into blood easily

Atelectasis

collapsed alveoli (air sacs), meaning they don't open, so no gas exchange happens.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

receives the impulse from the SA node and delays it slightly,

can fire at 40-60 bpm if needed

Automaticity

the heart can create its own electrical impulses

Autonomic nervous system

body system that controls automatic actions like bowel movement speed

B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)

a hormone that increases when the heart is stretched from heart failure

Barium studies

test w/ X-ray used to visualize the digestive tract

by having the patient drink a thick, white liquid,

which coats the organs and shows up clearly on the images.

Barrel chest

the chest looks rounded and enlarged front-to-back,

lungs stay over inflated for a long time (like in COPD/emphysema), so the rib cage stays expanded.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

Enlargement of the prostate gland

blocks urine flow and causes retention or overflow incontinence

Bilirubin in urine

waste from broken RBC

if found in urine means liver problems

Bilirubin

waste from broken red blood cells

Bladder capacity

The bladder stores about 250-400 mL before you feel the urge

Bladder training

Teaching the bladder to hold urine longer by scheduled voiding

Bladder

A muscular sac that stores urine until it is released

Hematuria

Blood in urine

Means conditions like kidney stones, UTIs,

also kidney/bladder cancer but rare

Blood lipid profile

a test that measures cholesterol and triglycerides to check heart disease risk

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

Measures protein waste still sitting in the blood

shows how well kidneys filters 

range 8-25 mg/dl

Blood vessels

veins, arteries, and capillaries carry blood for perfusion

Bolus

a soft ball of chewed food mixed with saliva that moves from the mouth to the stomach

Borborygmi

stomach gurgling sounds

Bronchoscopy

a scope inserted through the nose or mouth into the airways to see the trachea and bronchi.

Bronchospasm

sudden tightening of the airway muscles making airways narrow.

Bronchospasm

tightening of airway muscles that narrows the airway

BUN

Measures how much urea nitrogen is in the blood and shows kidney function

Bundle branches

carry the impulse down the left and right sides toward the apex,

can fire at 30-40 bpm

Capillaries

the tiny connection points where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged

Cardiac biomarkers

proteins released into the blood when the heart muscle is damaged

Cardiac catheterization

invasive test using dye to measure valve function and heart muscle strength

Cardiac output

the amount of blood the heart pumps each minute,

ranges 3.5 to 8 liters/min

cardiovascular primary functions

transports oxygen,

transport nutrients,

deliver waste products to organs

Catheter indication (I&O)

Used to accurately measure urine output in critically ill patients

Incomplete retention

Inability to fully empty the bladder

May feel pressure, discomfort and dribbling may occur

Catheter indication (specimen)

Used to collect a sterile urine specimen

Catheter indication (wounds)

Used to keep urine away from Stage III or IV pressure ulcers

Catheter specimen

Sterile urine sample taken directly from a catheter port

Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infection (CAUTI)

A UTI caused by bacteria entering the bladder through an indwelling urinary catheter.

CAUTI prevention

PureWick and condom catheters are used to avoid this

Clostridioides difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD)

diarrhea caused by C diff bacteria

antibiotics kill the good bacteria in the gut, and C. diff overgrows

Celiac disease

autoimmune reaction to gluten that damages the small intestine and causes diarrhea and malabsorption

Cellulose

indigestible plant fiber that adds bulk to stool

helps promote normal bowel movements

Central cyanosis

blue color around lips/mouth, very serious low oxygen.

Chest x-ray

shows heart size/shape and pulmonary congestion or edema

Clean-catch / midstream

Urine sample collected after cleaning the urethra and catching midstream urine

Cleansing enema

solution given to empty the colon before tests or procedures

Cloudy urine

↑ chance of infection

Clubbing

fingertips get round and bulb like from longterm low oxygen levels.

CO formula

cardiac output equals stroke volume x HR

Colitis

means inflammation of the colon (large intestine)

Colon sections

ascending colon transverse colon descending colon sigmoid colon

Colonoscopy

scope that visualizes the colon up to the ileocecal valve, anus to rectum to colon

Colonoscopy

test that looks inside the entire colon with a camera

Colostomy

can be temporary or permanent opening created from the colon to the abdomen for stool drainage

Colostomy

opening from the colon to the abdomen to pass stool

Complete blood count (CBC)

a blood test that measures red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

Constipation

hard, dry, stool

difficult to pass

Contractility

how strong the ventricle squeezes during the beat

Coronary blood flow increase

coronary flow can increase up to six times to meet higher oxygen demands

Coronary vessels

these vessels supply oxygen to the myocardial cells

Coude catheter

A catheter with a curved tip used to pass around an enlarged prostate

Cough reflex

clears irritants from lower airway

Crackles

short popping sounds caused by fluid in the small airways or alveoli.

Creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB)

an enzyme from heart muscle that increases with heart damage

Creatinine (Cr)

delet 

Creatinine

Waste from skeletal muscle breakdown

most accurate indicator of kidney function

Culture & sensitivity (C&S)

Test that identifies bacteria/type of infection in the urine, must be sterile

CXR (chest x-ray)

checks lungs for infection, fluid, or collapsed areas

Cyanosis

bluish color of skin/lips from low oxygen.

Cyanosis

bluish lips, skin, or nails caused by low oxygen in the blood.

Cystic fibrosis

condition where thick mucus affects digestion

can cause diarrhea constipation or steatorrhea

Cystoscopy

A scope is inserted through the urethra to look inside the bladder

Dark amber urine

↑ dehydration

Decreased sphincter control

older adults may have reduced control of anal sphincters leading to incontinence

Deep cough

strong cough to remove mucus deep in the lungs

Defecation reflex

body signal that tells you to have a bowel movement