L7-L12 History:Europe

Lecture notes.

L 7

Origins of the Cold war: 1945-1965

\-Tehran conference 1943 November-unconditional surrender germany,fear one would bail out.Divided into two,poland shifted to adv.og the SU

\-Yalta conference 1945 February USSR declared war on Japan, Eastern European governments, 4 occupation zones that divided germany'/austria

\-Postdam conference 1945 July-war reparations war industry germany dismantled, germans espoused from Eastern Europe

\-Cold War lasted for 45 years.

*-Freely elected and pro-russian:* to ensure a future, Stalin felt that his enemies would be western: Germany needed a safety zone between Germany and Russia: area of influence, under russian influence .

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Arms Race and Nuclear Weapons:

Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact: I

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

n 1948, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on West Berlin, cutting off access to essential supplies. In response, the United States and its allies organized a massive airlift to provide food and supplies to the blockaded city. This event highlighted the escalating tensions between the two superpowers and the determination of the United States to protect its interests and maintain a presence in Berlin.

The Iron Curtain:former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred to the division between Western Europe and the communist-ruled Eastern Europe as the "Iron Curtain”

World War II and the Division of Europe

Ideological Differences: The fundamental ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union played a crucial role in the onset of the Cold War. The United States championed liberal democracy, capitalism, and individual freedoms, while the Soviet Union advocated for communism, centralized planning, and collective ownership.

the United States initiated the Marshall Plan in 1947, offering substantial financial aid to help rebuild war-torn Europe. While the plan aimed to revive European economies, it also served as a way to prevent the spread of communism by creating stable and prosperous nations that were less susceptible to Soviet influence.

1947-Truman Doctrine

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\-       America’s policy geared to containing communism to those countries already under Soviet control

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*aimed at “containing” communism to areas already under Communist governments, a policy first advocated by U.S. diplomat George Kennan in 1946. The United States, President Truman promised,would use diplomatic, economic, and even military means to resist the expansion of communism anywhereon the globe.*- McKay 941.

1948   Marshall Plan: 

American plan for providing economic aid to western Europe to help it rebuild.

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\-       1949: Comecon

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) An economic organization of Communist states meant to help rebuild East Bloc countries under Soviet auspices.

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\-       1949: NATO: purpose→ keep the Soviets out, the Americans in (Europe) and the Germans down.

  NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an anti-Soviet military alliance of Westerngovernments.

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\-       1955: Warsaw pact

Warsaw Pact: Soviet-backed military alliance of East Bloc Communist countries in Europe.

The Warsaw Pact was a collective defense treaty signed in 1955 by several Eastern European countries, including the Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. It was established as a response to the formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) by Western countries. The Warsaw Pact aimed to create a mutual defense alliance among its member states, with the Soviet Union serving as the leading power. It provided for joint military exercises, coordination of defense policies, and the presence of Soviet troops in member countries. The Warsaw Pact dissolved in 1991 with the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Who began? Arguments in favor of the Russians

Russians, based on their historical experiences and perceptions, initiated the conflicts due to their belief that the Western powers were against them and posed a threat to their communist regime.

Historical context- origins of Cold War who began

1. Inevitability: The difference in political systems between the Soviet Union and the Western powers created a situation where someone had to win and someone had to lose. This perspective suggests that conflict was inevitable due to the ideological divide.
2. Historical context: The Russian Communist Party (the Reds) had reasons to be wary of the Western powers because during the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the subsequent civil war between the Reds and the Whites, the West supported the Whites. This support indicated that the West was against the communist regime from the beginning, leading to suspicion and distrust.
3. Events in 1938: During the crisis in Czechoslovakia in 1938, when Hitler demanded that the country give up part of its land to Germany, the Soviet Union offered military intervention against Germany in cooperation with the Western powers. However, the Soviet Union realized that the West's intentions were not aligned with theirs, strengthening their perception that the West was against them.
4. Anti-communist sentiment: There was already a prevalent suspicion against the West, particularly in America, that was inherently anti-communist. This sentiment further reinforced the notion that the Western powers had an antagonistic stance towards the Soviet Union.

The arguments in favor of the Americans beginning the conflicts can be summarized as follows:

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1. Western initiatives: Most of the initiatives were taken by the Western powers, particularly under the leadership of President Harry Truman. This suggests that the actions and policies were driven by the Western powers, including the United States.
2. Truman's presidency: Truman became the President of the United States following the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some argue that Truman would not have been chosen as President in a regular election. To solidify his position and win the support of American citizens, Truman needed to demonstrate his leadership and justify his role in international affairs.
3. Need for a clear distinction: Truman's actions were aimed at providing a clear distinction between the enemy, which was perceived as the Soviet Union, and the American people. By emphasizing the differences and creating a sense of threat from the Soviet Union, Truman shifted the distrust towards himself to the Soviet Union.

These arguments suggest that the American actions and policies, led by Truman, were driven by the need for domestic support and the perception of the Soviet Union as a clear and distinct enemy.

Rebuilding Europe

After experiencing conflicts and challenges, politicians learned the importance of avoiding totalitarianism and communism. They emphasized liberal democracy, with Christian and Social Democrats playing a central role in many countries. Cooperation with strong Communist parties initially and an anti-authoritarian stance were pursued. To prevent a return to Soviet-style planning, they favored a mixed economy and Keynesian policies. Initiatives like the Marshall Plan and Bretton Woods supported economic stability. The establishment of welfare states, exemplified by the Labour Party's reforms in Britain in 1948, aimed to ensure social security and improve citizens' well-being.

Christian Democrats

Center-right political parties that rose to power in western Europe after the Second World War.

The Bretton Woods agreement

➔   1944 had already linked Western currencies to the

U.S. dollar and established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to facilitate free markets and world trade

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Origins of the Welfare state

Bismarck, who came to power in a semi-democratic state, viewed the Social Democratic Party (SPD) as a threat to the future of Germany. In response, he implemented two strategies: eliminating the SPD and preventing public dissatisfaction. To achieve the latter, Bismarck introduced several social security measures, laying the foundations for the origins of the welfare state.

He decided two things

1\.     Get rid of the SPD

2\.     Ensuring that people won’t become dissatisfied : introduced a number of social securitymeasures.

Social security

Social security measures were initially introduced in 1914, focusing on providing protection for workers injured on the job in industrialized societies.

In 1950, efforts were made to consolidate and strengthen social security systems.

UK development &social security system

A significant milestone in the development of the UK's social security system was the Beveridge Report of 1943.

Authored by economist William Beveridge, the report outlined a comprehensive plan for social reform, aiming to address the "five giant evils" of want, disease, ignorance, squalor, and idleness. The report became a catalyst for the creation of the modern welfare state in the UK.

5 giant evils that confront people in their lives (Beveridge Report)

1\.     Disease

2\.     Squalor

3\.     Idleness

4\.     Want

5\.     Ignorance, uneducated

\-- the state needs to do something about this.

→ Welfare state which consists out of 5 pillars

Housing, income, support, health care education. As an alternative for non-democrarive regimes.

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Labour to power 1945-51

\-       Labour achievements

○              NHS

○              Industries were nationalized

○            New towns were built that provided 1.25 million new homes.

\-       Labour failures

○              Rationing

○              Colonies were restless + korea war

Financial crisis + devaluation

Forms of welfare states in Europe

\-       *Social democratic*: everybody as much money as possible, universal access to all kinds of social securities (scandanevian)

\-       *Liberal:* minimum to survive.

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\-       conservative/christain democrats

The differences in the welfare states across European countries can be attributed to several factors:

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1. Class Coalitions:

The position and influence of the middle class in different countries played a significant role in shaping the welfare state models. The interests and priorities of different social classes, such as the working class, middle class, and business elites, influenced the design and scope of social policies. Social democratic models, for example, often emerged from strong alliances between the working class and progressive middle-class groups.


1. Political Mobilization:

The level of political mobilization and the strength of labor movements and other social movements also influenced the development of welfare states. Countries with active and influential labor unions and social movements advocating for social reforms were more likely to adopt comprehensive welfare state policies. Political parties representing these movements, such as social democratic or socialist parties, often played a key role in shaping the welfare state.


1. Historical Factors:

Historical experiences and events, particularly those during the interwar period and the Great Depression, played a crucial role in the development of welfare states. The economic and social hardships faced during this time created a strong impetus for the establishment of social security systems and social safety nets. The need to address the challenges faced by unemployed individuals and promote social solidarity influenced the positive vision of the welfare state carried by social and Christian democratic parties.

what is a welfare state

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A welfare state is a system of government policies and programs aimed at promoting social and economic well-being, as well as providing a safety net for citizens in times of need. It is characterized by the provision of social services, such as healthcare, education, housing, unemployment benefits, and pensions, among others.

The primary goal of a welfare state is to ensure that all individuals have access to essential resources and a basic standard of living. It seeks to reduce poverty, inequality, and social exclusion by redistributing resources through progressive taxation and social welfare programs. The welfare state is founded on the principles of social solidarity and the belief that the government has a responsibility to protect and support its citizens.

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European Integration

European integration refers to the process of political, economic, and social cooperation among European countries with the goal of creating a unified and integrated Europe. It emerged as a response to the devastation of World War II and the desire to prevent future conflicts by fostering closer ties and cooperation among European nations.

One of the key factors that facilitated European integration was the Marshall Plan. The United States provided significant economic aid to help rebuild war-torn Europe through the Marshall Aid program. This aid helped stimulate economic recovery and laid the foundation for increased economic cooperation among European countries.

The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), later transformed into the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), played a crucial role in coordinating economic policies and promoting trade and economic integration among European countries.

In addition to economic cooperation, political cooperation was also pursued through the establishment of the Council of Europe in 1949. The Council of Europe served as a political forum for European nations to discuss common issues and promote human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.

However, it is important to note that European integration did not initially involve significant political integration or the establishment of a supranational parliament. Instead, it relied on intergovernmental cooperation and the establishment of supranational institutions, such as the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU).

The integration process proceeded without the active participation of Great Britain initially, as it was skeptical of relinquishing national sovereignty. However, over time, the European project expanded and evolved, and eventually, Great Britain joined the EU in 1973. Nevertheless, the decision by the United Kingdom to leave the EU, known as Brexit, in 2016, marked a significant turning point in European integration.

Overall, European integration has aimed to promote peace, stability, and prosperity by fostering economic cooperation, political dialogue, and the establishment of common policies and institutions among European nations. It has evolved and faced various challenges throughout its history but remains a dynamic process shaping the continent's political, economic, and social landscape.

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●              Marshall Aid

OEEC (= now OECD)

Economic cooperation

●              Council of Europe 1949: political counterpart of Marshall PlanPolitical cooperation as a parliament

GB, Nationalists and Communist against

 

●              > No political integration

●              No parliament but supranational institutions

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●              Ahead without Great-Britain

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe, established in 1949, was indeed created as part of the post-World War II efforts to promote cooperation and integration among European countries. It was one of the key institutions that emerged from the cooperation requirements set by the United States for receiving Marshall Plan aid.

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To receive Marshall Plan aid, the European states were required by the Americans to cooperate with onean- other, leading to the creation of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and the Council of Europe in 1948, both of which promotedcommerce and cooperation among European countries.

European federalists hoped that the Council of Eu- rope would evolve into a Europeanparliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen. (Mkacy 945)

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__Economic Integration__

\-Schuman and Monnet 1950

rome 1957

treaty of Brussels 1965

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In 1950, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, prominent French statesmen, proposed the establishment of an international organization to oversee and integrate European steel and coal production. This proposal was embraced by Christian Democratic governments in West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. As a result, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was founded in 1951, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

The Treaty of Paris marked an important step towards economic integration in Europe. It created a supranational authority that had control over the coal and steel industries of the member states. This meant that individual countries no longer had complete control over these industries, reducing the potential for them to be mobilized for war purposes. The success of the ECSC laid the foundation for further integration efforts.

Building upon the achievements of the ECSC, the Treaty of Rome was signed in 1957. It established the European Economic Community (EEC), which aimed to create a common market and promote economic cooperation among member states. The Treaty of Rome also established the European Court of Justice, which served as the judicial authority for the EEC, ensuring the uniform application of European law.

In addition to the EEC, the Treaty of Rome also created the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which aimed to coordinate and develop nuclear energy resources in Europe. While these developments focused primarily on economic integration, they set the stage for further integration efforts in the future.

It is worth noting that during this period, French President Charles de Gaulle was cautious about the extent of political integration and emphasized the importance of preserving national sovereignty. Nevertheless, the treaties and institutions created during this time laid the groundwork for deeper European integration in the subsequent years.

In 1965, the Treaty of Brussels was signed, leading to the merger of the three existing European communities: the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom. This consolidation further strengthened the process of integration by bringing these organizations under a single institutional framework.__Economic Integration__

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¢Treaty of Paris 1951

¢ECSC

—Ends debate between unionists and federalists

—Planning + High Authority accepted

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—Treaty of Rome, 1957

¢EEC

¢European Court of Justice

¢Euratom

¢Economic not political integration 

—De Gaulle

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—Treaty of Brussels, 1965

¢Merger of previous organisations: ECSC, EEC + Euratom

Goals of the Rome treaty:

\-       Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the six in order to create a single market almost as large as that of the United States.

\-       Other goals included the free movement of capital and labor and common economic policies and institutions.

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\-       The Common Market encouraged trade among European states, promoted global exports, and helped build shared resources for the modernization of national industries. European integration thus in- creased transnational cooperation even as it bolstered economic growth on the national level.

L 8 challenging the postwar order, 1960-1975: reform, protest and terrorism

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Causes, content and consequences of Protest:

*-     Changes in social stratification*

\-     The new left Counter culture 1968

*-     Social movement after the ‘summer of love’*

Environmental feminism, peace, gay rights.

\-     Terrorism

Social Revolutionary, nationalist

\-       *Political consequences*Eurocommunism Detente

End of dictatorships

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\-       *The new right*

Social changes

Three demographic changes that could underlie social political changes in the 1960s and 70s.

 

  *Middle classes:* white collar workers, blue collar workers became less important, people workingin office became dominant forms.

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  *Working classes*: blue collar workers become less important. Less agricultural, less heavy-industry, more specialised. Means that educational levels are rising.

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  *Women:* these changes had also had an effect on the number of women in work. Work was less heavy, a lot more work, a lot more women went to work. Gained a lot of indepence. Did oftenpart time work. Women were still discriminated against, less paid. Women who got divorced werereduced to poverty. work, problem

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→ so there is a lot of work around, and the type of work is changing, loty of women, a lot of young people around due to the baby boom.

 

 

Part 2: the new left

Where did all those young people come from, not only the Baby boom

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Where did all those young people come from, not only the Baby boom

\-       Youth culture 1950s were present, that was partly an expression of the new found wealth.

They were at work and the economy was booming. Gave them mobility to expressthemselves, they were not young people in a suit

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\-       Expansion of university education in the late 60s. In the late 40s secondary school was availablefor everyone. → however, universities could not handle this massive stream of people.

\-       Young people had their own identity, wealth and time, no worries about the future and manywere in university. They also had time to think about the world, how this should change.

\-       On the one hand: consumer revolution due to economic growth which facilitated stability. And they had higher education, which made them think critical about the world and their roles in it

\-       Generated a counter culture:

Young people went against the prevalent culture Civil rights USA

Paris 1968: strike for better conditions which coincide with a large student protest. They occupied Paris in 1968.

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New Left

A 1960s counterculture movement that embraced updated forms of Marxism to challenge both Westerncapitalism and Soviet- style communism.

  Student Rebellion in Paris

These rock-throwing students in the Latin Quarter of Paris are trying to force education reforms and even topple de Gaulle’s government. In May 1968, in a famous example of the protest movements that swept the world in the late 1960s, Parisian rioters clashed repeatedly withFrance’s tough riot police in bloody street fighting. De Gaulle remained in power, but a majorreform of French education did follow.

 

Counter culture

The counter-cultural movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s was a response to various perceived limitations on personal freedom and social issues. Here are some of the key arguments put forward by the counter-cultural movement:

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Against: limiting freedom, for freedom!

 

\-       opposition to Totalitarianism (including USSR)

\-     critique of  *capitalism* > americanism: brought repression, rich were rich and poor were poor.

The counter-cultural movement saw capitalism as a system that perpetuated wealth inequality and social injustice. They believed that American society, driven by consumerism and materialism, prioritized profit over human values.

\-       *Imperialism*> Vietnam


1. Opposition to Imperialism: The movement was strongly against the Vietnam War, viewing it as an example of imperialistic aggression and a violation of the rights and autonomy of the Vietnamese people.

\-       *Consumerism*: we should value real issues like love.

\-       *Party politics*: young people did not see politics do anything about these problems even not the communist parties. People moved therefore away from politics: explained the summer of love idea.

\-       *Traditional family*: real aspect of repression, you could not have relationships with more people.


1. They explored alternative forms of relationships and advocated for greater freedom of expression and exploration of one's sexuality.

Part 3: activism

The failure of the "summer of love" and the withdrawal from mainstream society led to various reactions and forms of activism.

❏ *Social movements:* single issue movements

❏ *originating* in the 70s

❏ *Anti-war movement:* Nuclear disarmament: cold war. People were afraid of nuclear war. Ingeneral there was a movement against use of nuclear arms.

❏ *Feminism:* about sexual rights, electoral rights. Many aspects of their lesser situation in society. Women often were legally not allowed to act as an independent entity.

❏ *Gay rights:* there was a movement of getting rid of these legal restrictions.

→ those single movements were gaining access, they were making some change, they did influencepolitics, not the majority.

❏ March through institutions: change society through the inside. Gain political power from within

Feminims

Environment

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Part 4: terrorism

Many people who wanted to change society did so through one issue movements, political movements. Other people became convinced that society could only be changed by the use of more active means: violence. Late 60s

\-       *Main elements*: movement that wanted to move society towards a socialist society using terrorist means mostly as a propaganda to get attention to show people that they should look at society in a different way.

\-       Society was not free, the elite was controlling society, particularly strong in Germany and Italy. → felt that the facsit state was still there and that if you provoked the state it would react violently.

\-       __First big issue:__

❏ Brussels 1967: fire people thought this was done by Maoist were responsible.

Probably an accident.

❏ Revolutionary terrorism

all countries had elements of versions of this. In Italy most victims died partly because the battle there was complicated by the strength f communist parties. That strength had put a lot of fear on the right against communists. Especially in the USA.

❏ Berlin 1967: start of this was the visit of the Iranian shah. He tortured political prisoners. One of the protesters was shot by the police. Caused a large scale protest in Germany.

Idea that society was fundamentally wrong, led to political violence

Nationlist terrorism

Second form of terrorist activity was inspired by the idea of liberation and freedom but stemmed from older conflict, dealing with regional movements that wanted to have independence.

 

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The notion of liberation and freedom: also inspired ancient existing groups. Northern Irish example 1968

\-     Majority of unionists:

 in favor between union Britain and Northern ireland. Unionists have been in power since the creation of northern Ireland. Politics were in favor of those who supported the union and those were protestant. This meant that people from nationalist, catholics were discriminated against in society, less civil rights than protestants.

If you had a business, you had an extra vote, but most businesses were owned byprotestants.

In the 1960s african american movement inspired Catholics in Northern ireland. Inspired byAmerican civil rights movement.

\-       Also nationnalist, wanted a united ireland.

\-       Whatever you do in favor of catholics, this will be in disadvantage of protestants.

Were leading to clashes. rioting .

Civil war between catholics and protestants they sent in the military to restore balance

→ catholic society did not feel safe, police were siding with protestants. Catholics were protecting themselves and arming themselves.

 

As a result, weapons on the street were not allowed by the government, so the military who were initially seen as liberators were now seen as those who were part of a repressive regime. Started searching catholic houses.

Led to bombing, shootings 1972: most bombings and shootings in that year.

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__Mckay on the Northern Irish example__

*The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA)*

a paramilitary organization in Northern Ireland, used similar tactics. Though Ireland had wonautonomy in 1922, Great Britain retained control of six primarily Protestant counties in the north of the island (see Chapter 26). In the late 1960s violence re-emerged as the IRA, hoping to unite these counties with Ire- land, attacked British security forces, which it saw as an occupyingarmy. On Bloody Sunday in January 1972, British soldiers shot and killed thirteen demon-strators, who had been protesting anti-Catholic dis- crimination, in the town of *Derry, and the violence escalated. For the next thirty years the IRA attacked soldiers and civilians in Northern Ireland and in Brit- ain itself. Over two thousand British soldiers, civilians, and IRA members were killed during “the Troubles” before negotiations between the IRA and the British government opened in the late 1990s and a settlement was reached in 1998.*

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Part 6: political consequences

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* Communist parties had to distance themselves from associations with terrorism 1970s
* Reinvention involved rejecting violence as a means to achieve goals
* Emphasis on social justice, equality, and progressive change
* Rejection of repression and totalitarianism
* Opposition to Soviet Union's actions and authoritarianism
* Emergence of new activist movements advocating for freedom and human rights
* Rise of green parties emphasizing environmentalism and social justice
* Alternative platform for those disillusioned with traditional left-wing parties.

Green Party: 

in West Germany in 1979 environmentalists founded the Green Party, a political party to fight for envi- ronmental causes. The West German Greens met with astounding success when they elected members to par- liament in 1983, the first time in sixty years that a new political party had been seated in Germany.

Eurocommunism

\: embraced the political system, and became part of the political system. Reisting themselves from terrorism. Came influential in many european countries.

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*1.     Concerns about nuclear warfare.*

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* Differences in approach between Europe and the USA towards the Soviet Union
* USA focused on negotiating from a position of strength and exerting force
* Europe aimed to entice the Soviet Union into becoming partners and relaxing internal restrictions
* Willy Brandt's engagement with the East, including peace agreements with the Soviet Union and recognition of East Germany as a separate country
* Emphasis on human rights and respect for freedoms
* The Helsinki Accords as a significant step in promoting human rights and cooperation
* Overthrow of dictatorships in Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, and Greece) in line with the spirit of liberation and freedom

Political Consequences II

**Détente** \n \n   **USA vs Europe** \n \n

During the period of détente, which refers to the relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s, there were differences in approach between the USA and Europe.


1. Negotiating from Strength vs. Enticement: The USA favored a more confrontational approach, seeking to negotiate with the Soviet Union from a position of strength and using force as a means of leverage. In contrast, European countries, particularly West Germany under Willy Brandt, advocated for engaging with the East and adopting a more conciliatory approach to entice the Soviet Union into relaxing internal restrictions.
2. Human Rights and Engagement: European countries, influenced by the spirit of the time and the desire for liberation and freedom, emphasized the importance of respecting human rights in their dealings with the Soviet Union. This was evident in the Helsinki Accords of 1975, where the participating countries, including European nations, agreed to respect fundamental freedoms and human rights.
3. Dictatorships in Western Europe: The existence of dictatorships in Western Europe, namely Portugal, Spain, and Greece, became a matter of concern during this period. As the West advocated for freedom and democracy in contrast to the repressive nature of the Eastern bloc, the persistence of these dictatorships within Western Europe seemed contradictory to the prevailing ideals of the time

**Willy Brandt** \n \n **Helsinki Accords**

Willy Brandt was a prominent German politician who served as the Chancellor of West Germany from 1969 to 1974. He played a significant role in shaping German foreign policy during the era of détente.

Brandt's policy of Ostpolitik aimed at improving relations and promoting dialogue between West Germany and Eastern European countries, particularly the Soviet Union and East Germany. One of the key moments of Brandt's tenure was his visit to Warsaw, Poland, in 1970, where he famously knelt at the Warsaw Ghetto Memorial in a gesture of reconciliation and remorse for Nazi Germany's crimes.

The Helsinki Accords, signed in 1975, were a series of agreements reached by the participating countries, including the United States, Canada, European nations, and the Soviet Union, during the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki, Finland. The accords addressed a wide range of political, military, economic, and human rights issues.

The human rights aspect of the Helsinki Accords was significant. Participating countries committed to respecting and promoting fundamental freedoms, including freedom of thought, religion, expression, and movement. This commitment helped to highlight and address human rights concerns within the Soviet bloc, providing a platform for monitoring and advocating for greater freedoms.

Willy Brandt's efforts in pursuing Ostpolitik and his engagement with Eastern European countries contributed to the broader context that led to the signing of the Helsinki Accords. Both Brandt's initiatives and the Helsinki Accords played a role in promoting dialogue, reducing tensions, and improving relations between East and West during the period of détente.

**End of Dictatorships** \n \n  

 **Spain** \n   **Portugal** \n   **Greece**

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During the 1970s, Spain, Portugal, and Greece underwent significant political transformations that marked the end of their respective dictatorships.

These transitions from dictatorship to democracy in Spain, Portugal, and Greece were significant milestones in the history of these countries. They represented a shift towards greater political freedom, respect for human rights, and the establishment of democratic institutions. These developments were part of the broader wave of democratization and liberalization that characterized Europe during the 1970s.

And then

The economic crisis of the 1970s was characterized by several causes and had significant consequences, including the retrenchment of the welfare state. Here's an overview:

Causes:


1. Oil Crises: The oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, triggered by political events in the Middle East, led to a sharp increase in oil prices. This had a significant impact on global economies, causing inflation and reducing consumer purchasing power.
2. Competitiveness: Western European countries faced increased competition from emerging economies, particularly in manufacturing sectors. The loss of competitiveness in traditional industries put strain on national economies.
3. Stagflation: The combination of stagnant economic growth and high inflation, known as stagflation, posed a challenge for policymakers. Traditional economic policies struggled to address this dual problem effectively.

Consequences:


1. Welfare State Retrenchment: The economic crisis put pressure on governments to cut public spending and reduce the scope of the welfare state. Social welfare programs faced reductions, and austerity measures were implemented to control public deficits.
2. Economic Restructuring: Countries sought to address the competitiveness challenges by implementing economic reforms. This included deregulation, privatization, and market-oriented policies aimed at improving efficiency and promoting growth.
3. Unemployment and Social Unrest: The economic downturn resulted in higher levels of unemployment, particularly in industries affected by structural changes. This led to social unrest and political tensions as people struggled with job losses and declining living standards.
4. Shift in Economic Policy: The economic crisis prompted a reevaluation of economic policies, with a shift towards more market-oriented approaches. Neoliberalism gained traction, emphasizing free markets, privatization, and reduced state intervention.

L9 

*a)    Trends in colonial societies*

*European empires lost their colonial possessions between 1945-1965, how do we account for these quick transformations?*

* European colonial powers shifted their perspective on colonial possessions from pure exploitation to promoting economic development. Britain&India
* The cost of maintaining empires became burdensome for European powers due to war debt. 1920s burdensome
* Efforts were made to strengthen the colonies economically and make them more self-sufficient.
* Investments in infrastructure such as railways and canals were made within the colonies. Britain
* Increased investment in education within the colonies.
* Local elites were given enhanced administrative roles and involvement in political processes.
* This period allowed local elites to gain experience in running a state and decision-making, setting the stage for eventual decolonization.
*  Decolonization: was preceded by a period in which local elites gained experience in running a state and decision making processes.

•

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•      - intensified efforts to advance socio-economic development in interwar period 

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•      - enhanced administrative involvement of local elites

 Growth or colonial nationalism:

* Nationalism spread beyond the Western world, as local elites became key figures in national movements and were influenced by European ideas of nationalism.
* Contact with European metropoles, particularly Paris, played a role in the proliferation of nationalist sentiments.
* Members of the local elite who received education and training in Europe, such as Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, played a significant role in leading independence movements.
* Organized resistance movements and popular mobilization emerged as these leaders rallied their people against colonial rule.
* Mohandas Gandhi, after studying in London and working as a lawyer in South Africa, returned to India and became a prominent figure in the independence movement.
* Gandhi's passive resistance movement, characterized by non-cooperation and civil disobedience, aimed to address injustice and poverty attributed to colonialism.
* Examples of Gandhi's resistance included the refusal to pay the salt tax and organizing the Salt March, as well as promoting spinning as a symbol of resistance against British-made cotton.
* The interwar period witnessed intensified efforts for socio-economic development and increased involvement of local elites in administrative and political processes within the colonies.

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•      Growth of Colonial Nationalism 

•      - proliferation of nationalism through contact with European metropoles 

•      - key role of members of local elite trained in Europe (Mohandas Gandhi, Kwame Nkrumah, etc.) 

\- organized resistance movements and popular mobilization

What Nationalism and Why?

•      Based on Colonial Territory

•      Sometimes smaller > partition • Sometimes larger > Pan movements

•      Opposition from:

•      Groups based on ethnicity, religion, region, class or old states

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•      Fostered by Colonial powers

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Nationalism in colonial territories emerged as a response to colonial rule and the desire for self-determination. It was based on shared history, culture, language, and territory. Nationalist movements aimed for either partition or pan-national unity. However, they faced opposition from groups with different identities. Colonial powers played a role in fostering nationalist sentiments through their policies and actions.

Why Nationalism won:

* Improved organization and resources after WWII
* Blaming the colonizer for societal issues to unite diverse groups
* Mobilizing frustrated old and new elites
* Engaging trade unions for working class support
* Involving religious elites and liberation theology
* Emphasizing shared historical resistance and aspirations for statehood
* Drawing on religious sources and symbols
* Cautioning against religious nationalism
* Using tradition to reject Western influence, as seen in Gandhi's clothing choices.

Why Nationalism won:

1. Global Movement: Nationalism became a global movement with its ideals rooted in liberal ideology.
* Nationalist leaders and intellectuals were educated in Western countries and the Soviet Union, where they were exposed to liberal ideas and texts.
* They received support from the West, both from individuals and states, which further strengthened their cause.
* Nationalist movements also found military support in some cases, enabling them to effectively challenge colonial powers.
* Nationalist groups from different countries and regions cooperated with each other, learning from and inspiring one another.
* Examples of successful decolonization movements, such as in China, Cuba, the Soviet Union, and Ireland, served as inspiration for other nationalist movements worldwide.

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Pan-Nationalism:

Based on shared religion, class, race or shared colonial identity Communism strong: supported by SU etc, anti-west idea, o popular with poor o Not with national leaders or rural farmers

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o  Pan-Africanism since early 20th, linking people in US, Europe and Africa

 Divisions: freedom vs civil rights

 Movements supported each other across Africa o Pan-Arabism

Based on linguistic jointness

Baath parties (Egypt, Iraq, Syria, etc.)

Based on religion: Pan-Islam > never in power

Led to cooperation at different levels > Arab League and Organisation of African unity

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Settler nationalism:

•      White’ Dominions as example

•      Extreme loyalty to empire and culturally exaggerate

•      Anti-liberal motherland and celebrate hardy frontier men identity • Dominions already independent via Statute of Westminster 1931.

•      Elsewhere often very small community

•      Except:

•      South Africa independent 1961

•      (South) Rhodesia (independent 1965 after fear of negotiations with Black population)

•      Algeria (uprising by troops and pied-noirs) 

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Trends in Colonial Societies 3:

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1. Colonial Dimension of World War II: The war weakened colonial powers as they faced military defeats in Europe and Asia. The power difference between colonizers and colonized societies reduced during this period.
2. Expectation of Independence: Many colonial societies expected independence as a reward for their support in the war against Nazi Germany. Their contributions to the war effort increased their aspirations for self-determination.
3. Disillusionment with Colonial Power: The experience of wartime exploitation and neglect further disillusioned colonial societies with their colonial rulers. The war highlighted the disparities and injustices inherent in the colonial system, fueling demands for independence and freedom.

Developments in Europe 1:

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1. Erosion of European Power: The aftermath of World War II weakened European nations, impacting their ability to maintain colonial control.
2. Imperial Overstretch: European powers faced challenges in maintaining their vast colonial empires due to economic and political strains.

Developments in Europe:

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2. Rise of the Cold War confrontation:

* The Soviet Union and China promoted an anti-imperial ideology, challenging the legitimacy of colonialism.
* The United States also criticized colonialism, aligning with the anti-colonial sentiment.

Impact Cold War:

* Truman Doctrine: The United States adopted a policy of containing communism, providing military and economic aid to countries threatened by communist expansion.
* Support for communism: The Soviet Union and China actively supported communist movements and regimes in different parts of the world, leading to ideological and geopolitical conflicts.
* Korea and the domino effect: The Korean War heightened concerns about the spread of communism, as the United States feared a domino effect where one country falling to communism would lead to others following suit.
* Open and covert wars: The Cold War era witnessed numerous conflicts, both overt and covert, in various regions, with the United States and the Soviet Union supporting opposing sides. Economic warfare, such as trade embargoes and sanctions, was also employed.
* Spheres of influence: The United States sought to maintain influence in the Western Hemisphere, while the Soviet Union expanded its influence in Eastern Europe and supported communist movements in other regions.
* Vietnam intervention: The United States' involvement in Vietnam was influenced by the Truman Doctrine and the Domino Theory, which perceived communist expansion as a threat and aimed to prevent its spread.
* Imperial powers: The Cold War intensified the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to debates about their respective roles as imperial powers, influencing global affairs through political, economic, and military means.

Developments in Europe 3:

* Armed conflicts in colonies increased awareness of the costs of colonialism.
* Discontent grew regarding the use of conscript armies in colonial wars.
* The aftermath of World War II created expectations of material rewards for European populations, leading to questioning of colonial rule.
* Shifting global dynamics and the rise of anti-colonial sentiment undermined the legitimacy of colonialism.

Roads to independence

• Individual trajectories varied, but certain patterns emerged based on previous independence movements. • Some movements pursued violent means, while others opted for non-violent resistance.

• The strength of political movements played a crucial role, particularly in cases where political activity was allowed or tolerated (e.g., India, Ghana).

• Veterans of World War II often played significant roles in independence movements, leveraging their experiences and networks.

• Settler communities in colonial territories had their own influence and often played a role in shaping the path to independence.

• Public opinion in the colonial "motherland" influenced the trajectory of independence, as growing support for decolonization exerted pressure on colonial powers.

• Global issues, such as the fight against imperialism and the influence of anti-colonial movements worldwide, impacted the road to independence.

• The fear of communism and the Cold War context sometimes influenced the actions of colonial powers and their response to independence movements, as seen in U.S. involvement in the Suez Canal crisis.

Road to Independence: Asia

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Rest of Asia followed one of two examples:


1. Negotiations:

* India: Achieved halfway to independence through negotiations in 1919 and 1935.
* 1945: Labour Party victory in the UK supported the process of Indian independence.


2. Fighting:

* China: Independence was achieved through armed struggle and fighting against various factions and occupying forces.

India:

Factors Influencing Fight for Independence in India:

* Valuable resources
* Exploitation of cheap labor
* Market potential
* British Raj and Indian National Congress
* All India Muslim League and the Lahore Resolution

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Interbellum (Interwar Period):

* Nationalist demands and support during World War I
* Introduction of the Government of India Act in 1919, establishing a dual-mode of administration
* Implementation of the Rowlatt Act in 1919, allowing for arrest without trial
* Jallianwala Bagh or Amritsar Massacre on April 13, 1919
* Mohandas Gandhi's non-violent protest and leadership
* Non-Cooperation Movement and the Salt March
* Invitation of Gandhi to London by the British government
* Government of India Act of 1935, introducing a federal structure, provincial autonomy, and safeguards for minority interests

1940s:

* In 1939, 250,000 Indians volunteered to fight for Britain in World War II.
* In 1942, the British government planned for conscription in India, leading to protests.
* The British government offered dominion status to India in exchange for more troops, but it was refused by the Indian National Congress (INC).
* In August 1942, Gandhi delivered his 'Quit India' speech, calling for India's independence.
* The Quit India Movement saw a mix of peaceful campaigns and instances of riots and fires.
* The cost of maintaining British control over India became increasingly burdensome.
* The new Labour government faced the challenge of declaring India an independent state.
* There was internal opposition within the government due to the strategic importance of India as a source of cheap labor and natural resources.
* The Indian independence movement had an impact on other colonies seeking independence.
* Lord Mountbatten was appointed to oversee the creation of an independent Indian state.
* The decision to partition India was made due to escalating violence and communal tensions.
* On 15 August 1947, the Indian Independence Act was passed, leading to the formation of India and Pakistan as separate nations.
* The partition resulted in the displacement of millions of people, with at least 1 million deaths during the migration process.
* Tragically, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948.

Road to Independence: Middle East

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The road to independence in the Middle East included the end of the mandates in Palestine and the establishment of Israel. The Suez Crisis in 1956 was also a significant event in the region.

* Palestine: The British mandate in Palestine ended, leading to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. This event was accompanied by conflict and displacement between Israelis and Palestinians.
* Suez Crisis: In 1956, a crisis erupted over control of the Suez Canal, involving Egypt, Israel, France, and the United Kingdom. Egypt's nationalization of the canal sparked a military intervention by Israel and its allies, which resulted in a brief conflict.

These events shaped the political landscape and ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.

Algeria:

Algeria was administratively considered a part of France rather than a formal colony, with a population consisting of 9 million Muslims and 1 million European settlers. In the 1920s, Algerian nationalists, mostly from the France-educated urban middle class, began advocating for independence. However, their political demands were harshly suppressed.

After World War II, neighboring Libya gained its independence, which further fueled the aspirations of Algerian nationalists. The National Liberation Front (FLN) emerged as a prominent guerilla movement, engaging in armed resistance against French rule in Algeria.

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9 million Muslims, 1 million European settlers 1920s Algerian nationalists mostly France educated urban middle class Post WWII > independence Lybia Political demands harshly put down > FLN guerilla >

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The Algerian War of Independence took place from 1954 to 1962, characterized by the following key events:

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* In 1954, the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) declared an armed insurgency against French rule in Algeria.
* The FLN conducted a violent campaign targeting French military, police, and European citizens.
* The Philippeville massacre, in which the FLN killed 123 French citizens and alleged supporters of the colonial regime, led to retaliatory violence by the French army.
* The French army responded with summary executions, torture, and did not intervene against retaliatory violence.
* The FLN had success in rural areas but faced challenges in urban centers.
* The Battle of Algiers, a major urban battle, involved the deployment of 400,000 French troops.
* The conflict caused a moral and political crisis in France, and even though General de Gaulle came into power, he faced decreasing support for the war.
* The settlers' uprising known as the Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS) was eventually suppressed.
* Algeria gained independence in 1962.

Road to Independence: Africa

he road to independence in Africa varied depending on the colonial power and the specific circumstances of each country. Here are some general observations:

* African countries often followed the examples set by other nations in their struggle for independence.
* The path to independence was generally smoother in Africa compared to other regions.
* Some independence movements adopted non-violent methods, while others resorted to armed resistance.
* The process of decolonization varied depending on the imperial power holding control.
* Britain, as a colonial power, implemented a relatively smoother transition to independence in many African countries.
* France had a more complicated relationship with its African colonies, and the struggle for independence often involved violent conflicts.
* Belgium's rule over the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Belgian Congo) was marked by a turbulent independence struggle.
* Portugal held onto its colonies in Africa longer than other European powers, leading to prolonged and often violent struggles for independence.

Ghana (non-violent):

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In the case of Ghana, the road to independence was largely non-violent. Here are the key events:

* In 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) party was established by the Big Six, which included Kwame Nkrumah.
* The UGCC was the first political party formed by local people in Ghana.
* On 28 February 1948, a protest by veterans took place, leading to the arrest of UGCC leaders.
* In response, Nkrumah established the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the slogan "Self Government Now!"
* The Big Six, excluding Nkrumah, were tasked with drawing up a new constitution for the Gold Coast in 1950. However, they did not invite Nkrumah to participate.
* Nkrumah called for a national strike, which led to violence. He was blamed for the unrest and subsequently arrested, receiving a three-year prison sentence.
* Due to British fears of communism, elections were held in 1951. The CPP emerged as the winner, securing 34 out of 38 seats, with Nkrumah becoming the leader of the Gold Coast Colony.
* In 1956, a national vote was held on independence, and Ghana achieved independence on 6 March 1957.

This peaceful transition to independence in Ghana under the leadership of Nkrumah is considered a significant milestone in the decolonization of Africa.

Kenya (violent)

* Large settler population in Kenya's highlands for plantations led to the displacement of the Kikuyu people.
* Kikuyu people organized themselves, but their activities were banned.
* Reforms in 1951 were prevented by the settlers.
* The rebellion of the Land and Freedom Army (Mau Mau) emerged in response to the oppression.
* The rebellion was initially suppressed, but public opinion shifted in favor of independence.
* Negotiations took place with moderates in the Kenya African National Union led by Jomo Kenyatta.
* Reforms were implemented, including reserved seats in the government for Black Kenyans and other ethnic groups.
* Jomo Kenyatta became the prime minister on June 1, 1963.
* On December 12, 1963, Kenya declared its independence.

Jamaica

* Maroon Wars were fought in Jamaica, involving a combination of former enslaved people and indigenous Tainos.
* Marcus Garvey, a black nationalist and Pan-Africanist, founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association in 1918.
* Labor unrest in the 1930s led to the formation of the People's National Party and Jamaica Labour Party.
* In 1943, the Jamaica Labour Party, led by Alexander Bustamante, a white labor leader, won the elections.
* A new constitution in 1944 granted self-government and an elected House of Representatives.
* World War II veterans expected better living conditions and total independence but were disappointed.
* Many Jamaicans traveled to Britain as part of the Windrush generation.
* In 1953, Jamaicans were able to elect government ministers, and in 1959, they achieved full self-government.
* In 1962, the Jamaica Labour Party, led by Bustamante, won the election, and Jamaica gained formal independence.

Remnants of Colonialism:

* Some Caribbean islands, such as Barbados, still have the British monarch as their head of state.
* However, some Caribbean countries have become republics, including Trinidad and Tobago in 1976 and Barbados on 30 November 2021.
* There are still some Caribbean territories that remain as British overseas territories, including Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos, and Cayman Islands.

Political Impact of Decolonization 

Decolonization had significant social and cultural impacts on Europe.

Increased interactions and migration led to cultural exchange and diversity.

Challenged narratives of European superiority and prompted reevaluations of national identities.

Influx of immigrants from former colonies influenced food, music, and language. Debates on racism and equal rights emerged.

Former colonial subjects played important roles in shaping culture and intellectual discourse.

Legacy of colonialism continues to shape social dynamics in Europe.

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•      Non Aligned movement strong in UN

•      little support for remaining colonies

•      Neocolonialism

•      British Commonwealth + Francophone world

•      Decolonised but big effects in colonies and motherlands

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The Social and Cultural Impact of Decolonization in Europe

The Social and Cultural Impact of Decolonization in Europe

The social and cultural impact of decolonization in Europe can be observed in two main aspects: white immigration and immigration by ethnic minorities.

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1. White Immigration:

* This refers to the "return" of colonial elites and beneficiaries of the empire to their home countries in Europe.
* Many individuals and families had lived in former colonies for several generations and felt a sense of disillusionment upon their return.
* Examples include the "pieds noirs," who formed communities in southern France after fleeing Algeria in 1962.


2. Immigration by Ethnic Minorities:

* Former supporters of colonial regimes, such as the harkis, fled from their home countries and sought refuge in Europe.
* Many individuals migrated for educational purposes, particularly to pursue university studies.
* Economic migration also occurred during periods of economic boom.
* Ethnic minorities often faced discrimination and challenges in their host countries.
* Both white immigrants and ethnic minorities play prominent roles in discussions and contestations over public colonial memory.

These factors have contributed to the diverse social and cultural landscape of Europe following decolonization, with ongoing debates and struggles surrounding colonial history and its legacies.

L10 the Eastern Bloc

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## The characteristics of the Eastern Bloc, 1950-1970

The characteristics of the Eastern Bloc during the period of 1950-1970 are as follows:


1. Political Division: The Eastern Bloc, led by the Soviet Union (SU), represented the political division of Europe and extended beyond Europe into Asia. It is often associated with Eastern Europe, although the exact boundaries are debated, and some nations consider themselves as Central or Central East European.
2. End of the Short 20th Century: The collapse of the Eastern Bloc marked the end of the short 20th century, which spanned from 1914 to 1989, characterized by significant political and social changes.
3. Legacy of Division: The political division between East and West still has a significant impact on political life. Russia seeks to reestablish its influence within the former Soviet sphere, and tensions between former East and West European countries persist.
4. European Union Dynamics: Within the European Union (EU), there are divisions between states that were formerly part of the Eastern Bloc and those in the West. Eastern European countries such as Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary have shown skepticism towards liberal democracy.
5. Long-Term Legacy: The Eastern Bloc shaped social and political life across half of the continent for approximately 40 years, leaving a lasting impact on the region's development and ongoing political dynamics.

Overall, the Eastern Bloc had a profound influence on the social, political, and cultural aspects of the countries within its sphere of influence, and its legacy continues to shape the geopolitical landscape today.

General characteristics

After World War II, the Cold War escalated rapidly, driven by tensions in Europe and the competition for influence between the United States and the Soviet Union (SU). The Eastern Bloc emerged as a result, with the SU exerting control and maintaining hegemony within the bloc.

The leadership of the SU was institutionalized through two key organizations. First, the Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 as a military alliance among the Eastern Bloc members, serving as a direct counterpart to NATO. Second, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) was formed in 1949 as an economic alliance in response to the Marshall Plan. Comecon facilitated economic cooperation and planning among the Eastern Bloc countries, replicating structures seen in the SU.

The doctrine of "socialist internationalism" solidified the leadership of the SU within the Eastern Bloc. This doctrine emphasized mutual support among bloc members and their allegiance to the SU in times of challenges, serving as the foundation for their relations.

The political systems within the Eastern Bloc were characterized by the doctrine of "democratic centralism." Communist parties were the sole leaders of the countries, and there were no competitive elections. Instead, pre-selected representatives from the communist parties were sent to the parliament, and elections served as institutions of control rather than genuine democratic processes. All citizens were required to vote and were closely monitored.

Repressive political systems were in place, with no freedom of elections or opposition parties. The aim of these systems was to reconstruct the state in favor of farmers and workers. Industries were nationalized, and agriculture was collectivized, forming planned economies. Social mobility was promoted for the children of farmers and industrial workers. However, these societies were not as static as Western opponents claimed, as there were variations among individual countries within the Eastern Bloc and challenges to the authority of socialist parties.

shorter

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The Eastern Bloc, formed after World War II, was under the control of the Soviet Union (SU) and characterized by its institutional leadership through the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The doctrine of "socialist internationalism" solidified the relationships among Eastern Bloc members, while the political systems were based on "democratic centralism," with no free elections and repressive measures in place. The aim was to reconstruct the state for farmers and workers, with nationalized industries and collectivized agriculture. Despite the commonalities, there were differences between individual countries and challenges to socialist party authority within the Eastern Bloc.

The Soviet Union 1950s-1960s 

After Stalin’s death, SU began to undergo changes.

● Nikita Krushchev (1894-1971); General secretary 1953-1964. After Stalin. He initiated reorientation of SU reform period → De-stalinization; secret speech of 1956 at party congress. He criticized Stalin policies: cult of personality, also conduct of world war 2, numerous victims. He said that the war effort was a lot less efficient than it could have been. Persecution of committed communist was also a point of critique. He wanted more debate but still the undoubted leader. Commitment to reform became clear in 1956.

● Economic reforms: aims of planning changed stronger emphasis on consumption goods and consumer. Whereas Stalin focused on investment goods. The aim of Nikita to raise living standards, the soviets realized that they had to show they had also material benefits to offer for their people. Also reorientation of forgein policy→ ● “ peaceful coexistence” as doctrine for international relations: abandonment of promotion of policies that tried to destabilize western countries. = easing tensions with the USA, nuclear tensions. Which was a global threat. Examples of cultural exchanges were exhibitions that each country organized: american american national exhibition in Moscow. Defrosting tensions. 1963.

● Yest: volatility of Khrushchev approach to international relations eg the Cuban missile crisis

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Hungary in the Eastern Bloc

1956

* After Nikita Khrushchev's leadership, Hungary experienced a period of reform and liberalization.
* Discontent with living standards and suppression of liberties fueled demands for national autonomy and stronger democratic procedures.
* Imre Nagy, a more liberal communist party leader, supported these demands and called for the introduction of democratic reforms.
* Widespread demonstrations and discussions took place among students and workers.
* The Soviet Union sent troops to suppress the reform movement, leading to a crisis in 1956.
* The reform movement was suppressed, and an orthodox communist regime was reestablished.
* In the late 1960s, Hungary implemented economic reforms known as "goulash communism," resulting in higher living standards.
* Hungary remained loyal to the Soviet Union and served as an example to deter further attempts at liberation.

important

Czechoslovakia in the Eastern bloc

* 1968: Alexander Dubcek becomes party leader, advocating for reformed communism and democratic elements.
* "Socialism with a human face": Prague Spring demonstrations and declarations of solidarity.
* Dubcek's approach resonates on both sides of the Iron Curtain.
* Demands for democratic reforms and national autonomy.
* Soviet, East German, and Polish troops crush the Prague Spring.
* Alarm over Dubcek's international popularity and fear of destabilizing the Eastern Bloc.
* Soviet Union invades Czechoslovakia in 1968, ending the Prague Spring.
* Installation of a regime obedient to Moscow.

__The German Democratic Republic in the Eastern Bloc__

Germany GDR experienced no liberalization through the entire existence of the Eastern Bloc.

 

* German Democratic Republic (GDR) had no liberalization during the Eastern Bloc.
* Strong competition with Federal Republic of Germany.
* Establishment of a tight security apparatus, including the Stasi.
* Waves of refugees leaving the GDR.
* Construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
* Relative economic prosperity but shaky political legitimacy.
* The strong repressive nature can be explained by solidarity with the Soviet Union and fear of questioning the existence of the GDR.
* Leaders of the GDR owed their lives to being exiled in the Soviet Union during the Third Reich.
* Questioning the regime would raise doubts about the need for the GDR's existence and potential German unification.
* Initiating reforms in the GDR was exceptionally difficult due to the risk of undermining its legitimacy in comparison to the alternative West German state.
* Repression was heavily relied upon to keep citizens within the country.
* In the 1950s, West Germany became affluent, leading many East Germans to migrate there. To halt this, the East German regime built the Berlin Wall in 1961, solidifying the division between East and West Germany and serving as a symbol of the Cold War.
* Shared features in the Eastern bloc include discontent with living conditions, lack of civil liberties, challenges to socialist internationalism on a national level, and the allure of the alternative offered by the West.
* Eastern European regimes responded to these challenges with repression.

Detente

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Detente in the 1970s refers to a period of improved relations and reduced tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. It involved diplomatic efforts, arms control agreements, and cultural exchanges aimed at easing the Cold War rivalry.

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Key events during this period included the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), the Helsinki Accords, and various cultural exchanges. Detente contributed to a more stable international environment and paved the way for increased communication and negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union.

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## 1.     The period of detente 1970s

During the late 1960s and 1970s, there was a period of detente, or relaxation of tensions, between the major superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. This shift in relations was motivated by several factors:


1. Economic pressures: Both the East and the West faced economic difficulties, including the 1973 oil crisis, which created a need for cooperation and stability.
2. Nuclear arms race: The escalating costs and the existential threat of a nuclear war led to a recognition of the need to limit armaments and reduce the risk of accidental conflict.

As a result, bilateral treaties were negotiated to limit armaments and promote stability. One notable example was the Helsinki Accords of 1975, which involved multilateral negotiations and included compromises from both sides. The Accords emphasized the acceptance of existing borders, non-interference in national affairs, peaceful settlement of conflicts, and the inclusion of human rights.

While the East saw the Accords as a way to secure borders and limit Western interference, they underestimated the significance of committing to human rights. Opposition groups within the Eastern Bloc, such as Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia, referred to the Helsinki Accords to hold their own governments accountable for human rights violations. The Accords provided a boost to opposition movements and had far-reaching implications.

End of detente

The end of detente in the 1980s was triggered by a shift in the policies of both the United States and the Soviet Union.

The United States turned against detente, accusing the Soviet Union of continuing and stoking Cold War tensions in Africa and Asia. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, saw detente as a danger to its own sphere of influence and felt limited in its ability to project its influence.

Several events and developments further strained relations:


1. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979: The Soviet invasion to support a communist regime in Afghanistan led to strong condemnation from the West. This intervention, along with other actions, triggered tensions.
2. Suppression of the Catholic opposition movement in Poland: The Soviet-backed regime in Poland cracked down on the Solidarity movement, leading to international criticism.
3. Olympic Games boycott: The United States and some other Western countries boycotted the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow as a protest against the Soviet Union's actions.

The election of confrontational politicians in the West, such as Ronald Reagan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom, further escalated tensions. Reagan pursued a more confrontational approach and embraced harsh Cold War rhetoric, referring to the Soviet Union as the "evil empire." He ramped up military investment, including the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or "Star Wars" initiative, which aimed to defend America against nuclear attacks.

The renewed Cold War and increased military spending by the United States placed considerable economic pressure on Eastern European countries. The Eastern Bloc had to ramp up their military investments in response, further straining their economies.

These developments marked the end of the detente period and led to a renewed period of heightened tensions and confrontation between the superpowers.

Important

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## 1.  The crisis years 1980s

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Soviet Union

In the 1980s, the Soviet Union, under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev, faced economic and political stagnation. Gorbachev implemented reforms called glasnost (transparency) and perestroika (restructuring) to revitalize the country. He pursued detente with the United States, reducing nuclear armaments and aiming for improved relations. Gorbachev's efforts marked a shift towards cooperation and easing tensions between the two power blocs.

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Economic and political stagnation: was not detected, in major attempt to address this, appointed relatively young politician under Brezhnev (1906-1982) and Yuri Andropov (1914-1984)

\-       Election of Mikhail Gorbachev 1931 in 1984

\-       Glasnost= transparency party and state and perestroika= transformation of the SU, meant that society and party had to be rebuilt, in particular reform of the economy to make it more efficient and mobilization of new party members to bring new ideas in.

He engaged in self-criticism and opening up of the party towards further dialogue→

\-       Renewal of detente: realized that he couldn’t reform his country and at same time engage in the nuclear arms race. He approached the USA administration and he managed to limit and reduce the number of nuclear armaments. In a series of summits with Reagan. SU had no longer the material means to engage in competing with the Americans military and he did believe in building more trust within the two power blocs.

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He believed in easing tensions.

Gorbachev unleashed an uncontrollable dynamic in SU and Eastern Europe at large His reforms unleashed reformdynamics in all of Eastren Europe

Charter 77 became more active.

Poland: solidarity movement more active

Hungary: reformed economically.

Even in countries where the leadership was unwilling to reform one could see that pressure from below was building up.

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Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union had a ripple effect throughout Eastern Europe, triggering a wave of reform movements. The Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia, the Solidarity movement in Poland, and economic reforms in Hungary were all examples of the growing pressure for change from within these countries. Even in nations where the leadership was resistant to reform, such as in East Germany, the demands for change from the people were intensifying. Gorbachev's actions unleashed an uncontrollable dynamic that reshaped the political landscape of Eastern Europe.

Poland vs Hungry

Poland: solidarity movement more active

Hungary: reformed economically.

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Poland's Solidarity movement and Hungary's economic reforms were significant developments in their respective countries during the late 1980s. While they shared some similarities, there were also notable differences in their goals and outcomes. Here is a comparison:

Poland's Solidarity Movement:

* Solidarity was a trade union and social movement in Poland, founded in 1980.
* It emerged as a response to economic hardships, labor issues, and discontent with the communist regime.
* Led by Lech Walesa, Solidarity demanded political and economic reforms, including the recognition of independent trade unions, freedom of speech, and democratic elections.
* Solidarity gained widespread popular support and became a powerful force for change, organizing strikes and protests.
* The movement faced repression from the government, including the declaration of martial law in 1981, but continued to operate underground.
* Solidarity played a crucial role in the transition to democracy in Poland and eventually formed the first non-communist government in Eastern Europe in 1989.

Hungary's Economic Reforms:

* Hungary initiated economic reforms in the 1960s under communist leader Janos Kadar but intensified them in the 1980s.
* The reforms aimed to address economic stagnation and inefficiencies in the centrally planned economy.
* Hungary introduced elements of market-oriented policies, such as allowing limited private enterprise, encouraging foreign investment, and liberalizing trade.
* The reforms led to increased foreign trade, investment, and economic growth, and Hungary became one of the most prosperous Eastern Bloc countries.
* However, the reforms did not include significant political changes, and the Hungarian Communist Party maintained a monopoly on power.
* While the economic reforms improved living standards, they did not directly challenge the communist political system.

In summary, the Solidarity movement in Poland focused on demanding political and democratic reforms alongside economic improvements. It played a crucial role in Poland's transition to democracy. On the other hand, Hungary's economic reforms prioritized improving the country's economy while maintaining political control by the communist party. Both movements represented significant developments in their respective countries during the late 1980s, but with different goals and outcomes.

GDR: churches and environmental groups became more prominent

What occured due to Helsinki: travel was easier⇒ more contact between east and west - Synamicization of opposition movements demanding internal reforms and more national autonomy - General conflicts: politicization of youth culture: more cultural contact. Younger peoples began to develop their own youth culture, western clothing, music hairstyles. = form of protest cultural and generational: statement by listening to the music of the enemy.

In German Democractic regime

GDR: listened to western music: dreaming away. → bands developed a fan base in GDR: concert of ‘deepish mode’ 1988. Concert was very popular. West used this fandom of the east to protect itself in the east. Concert brandenburger gate: so that east germans could also listen. Stasi heard of this and violently removed the people→ protest among the young people: the wall has to go.

\-       Intensification of contacts between East and West through travel arrangements

By 1989: system is creaking at the seams

short 20th century (as opposed to long 19th century)

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The Soviet Bloc

he Soviet Bloc, also known as the Eastern Bloc, refers to the group of socialist states that were under the influence of the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Here are some key points about the Soviet Bloc:

* The Eastern Bloc included countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, and others. The term "Eastern Europe" is not precisely defined and can vary depending on context.
* The Soviet Union had a continued interest in maintaining influence over Eastern Europe, even in the present day, leading to tensions between Russia and some Eastern European countries within the European Union.

The Eastern Bloc in the 1950s to 1970s:

* Two important institutions within the Eastern Bloc were the Warsaw Pact, established in 1955 as a military alliance to counter NATO, and COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), established in 1949 as an economic organization to coordinate economic planning among member countries.
* The doctrine of "socialist internationalism" served as the foundation of relations between the member states. Communist parties held strong leadership positions, although in some countries like East Germany, multiple parties existed but had limited competition for votes.
* The principle of "democratic centralism" was the basis of the political systems, where decisions were made by a central authority but with limited democratic participation. Free elections were not held, and political systems were repressive, allowing little opposition.
* The construction of a state focused on the interests of farmers and workers was a shared aim among the Eastern Bloc countries. They promoted social mobility, for example, through access to education and opportunities for advancement.

During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union underwent significant changes under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. Here are some key points about the Soviet Union during that period:

* In 1953, Joseph Stalin passed away, and Khrushchev assumed the role of General Secretary of the Communist Party, serving until 1964.
* Khrushchev initiated a process of de-Stalinization, publicly criticizing Stalin's cult of personality, the conduct of World War II, and the purges of the 1930s.
* Khrushchev aimed to bring internal party reforms and economic changes. He sought to shift the focus from heavy industry (such as steel production) to consumer goods to improve living standards and compete with the West. However, the increase in living standards was not as significant as in Western countries.
* The doctrine of "peaceful coexistence" became the basis of Soviet international relations. Khrushchev advocated for peaceful relations and respected the sovereignty of neutral states, as demonstrated by Austria's neutral status.
* Khrushchev's approach to international relations was marked by volatility. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 exemplified this, with tensions escalating between the Soviet Union and the United States. Eventually, a resolution was reached, leading to the withdrawal of missiles from both Cuba and Turkey.
* Cultural exhibitions and diplomatic initiatives, such as the "kitchen debate" between Khrushchev and US Vice President Richard Nixon, aimed to showcase each country's way of life and ideology.
* In 1963, a nuclear ban treaty was signed, restricting the testing of nuclear weapons in the sea and atmosphere.
* Khrushchev supported independence movements in Asia and Africa, attempting to sway them towards aligning with the Eastern Bloc. However, he could also be confrontational in his approach.

It's important to note that this summary provides a broad overview of the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s and does not cover all the complexities and events of the era.

Important Hungary in Eastern Bloc

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Hungary experienced significant events and dynamics within the Eastern Bloc during the time period mentioned. Here is a summary of Hungary's situation:

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* Hungary had discontent with living standards and a desire for greater national autonomy.
* Imre Nagy emerged as a prominent leader within the Hungarian Communist Party.
* In 1956, there was a wave of protests led by students and workers who criticized shortages, poor living conditions, and the lack of liberties under communist rule. The demands included stronger autonomy for Hungary within the Eastern Bloc and a rejection of Soviet influence.
* Imre Nagy, in response to the protests, called for greater democratic elements in Hungary.
* The Soviet Union responded by sending troops to suppress the uprising. The intervention resulted in a significant number of casualties, many people leaving the country as refugees, and imprisonment of dissenters. The orthodox communist regime was restored.
* In the late 1960s, Hungary implemented economic reforms that led to a relative prosperity. This period was characterized by a slight liberalization, often referred to as "goulash communism."

Czechoslovakia in the Eastern Bloc

Important

Czechoslovakia, like other countries in the Eastern Bloc, had its own unique experiences during the mentioned period. Here is a summary of Czechoslovakia's situation:

* Until the late 1960s, Czechoslovakia was under the rule of an orthodox communist regime, which led to discontent among the population due to suppression, economic difficulties, and limited liberties.
* In 1968, Alexander Dubcek came to power as the party leader in response to the discontent within the party ranks and the desire for democratic socialism. There was also support from Western student movements who advocated for democratic forms of socialism.
* Dubcek sought economic support and negotiated with Western banks for loans to invest in the country. He also aimed to introduce more civil liberties and democratic procedures.
* The public demonstrations in support of Dubcek's leadership became known as the Prague Spring. It was characterized by the idea of "socialism with a human face" and demands for national autonomy, which posed a challenge to Soviet authority.
* In response to the perceived threat of Dubcek's reforms, the Soviet Union, along with East German and Polish troops, intervened and crushed the backlash. This led to a period of repression and resulted in a wave of refugees leaving the country.

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The German Democratic Republic in the Eastern Bloc

The German Democratic Republic (GDR), also known as East Germany, had distinct characteristics during its existence within the Eastern Bloc. Here are some key points:


1. Direct competition with the Federal Republic of Germany: The GDR was established in 1949 as a socialist state in the eastern part of Germany, in direct opposition to the capitalist West Germany.
2. Establishment of a tight security apparatus (Stasi): The GDR had a highly developed surveillance and security apparatus known as the Stasi. It was one of the most extensive secret police organizations in the Eastern Bloc and played a crucial role in maintaining control and suppressing dissent.
3. Repeated waves of refugees leaving the GDR: Due to the stark differences in living standards and political freedom between East and West Germany, there were frequent waves of refugees leaving the GDR in search of better opportunities and personal freedoms in the West.
4. Construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961: To prevent further mass emigration to West Germany, the GDR government erected the Berlin Wall, physically separating East and West Berlin. The wall became a symbol of the Cold War division and remained in place until its fall in 1989.
5. Relative economic prosperity but shaky political legitimation: While the GDR experienced some level of economic prosperity, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, its political legitimacy remained questionable. The lack of political freedoms, restricted civil rights, and ongoing repression of dissent contributed to the shaky legitimacy of the regime.

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The Period of Detente (1970s) 

\- toned down tensions

Motivations for Detente:

\-       economic pressures in East and West (it is expensive to maintain a strong reactionary state ready for war)

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\-       existential threats arising from nuclear arms race - SALT treaty 

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During the 1970s, there was a period of detente, which refers to a relaxation of tensions between the superpowers, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union. This period was motivated by several factors:


1. Economic pressures in East and West: Both the Eastern Bloc and Western countries faced economic challenges, and maintaining a high level of military readiness and confrontation was financially burdensome. The cost of the arms race and the need to address economic difficulties provided a motivation for toning down tensions and seeking a more cooperative approach.
2. Existential threats from the nuclear arms race: The escalating nuclear arms race between the superpowers reached a point where the potential for mutual destruction became a significant concern. The realization that a full-scale nuclear war could lead to the annihilation of both sides created an incentive for seeking arms control agreements and measures to limit the risk of accidental conflict.

One significant development during this period was the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the United States and the Soviet Union. These talks led to the signing of the SALT I Treaty in 1972, which aimed to limit the growth of strategic nuclear weapons and promote arms control.

Overall, the motivations for detente in the 1970s were rooted in economic pressures, the recognition of the risks posed by the nuclear arms race, and the desire to reduce the likelihood of a catastrophic conflict between the superpowers.

End of Detente 

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1. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979: The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan triggered strong opposition from the United States and its allies. This action was seen as a significant escalation of Soviet activities outside its immediate sphere of influence and led to increased tensions between the superpowers.
2. Election of confrontational politicians in the West: The elections of Ronald Reagan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom brought leaders who took a more confrontational stance against the Soviet Union. Their rhetoric and policies, including a renewed focus on military buildup and anti-Soviet sentiment, contributed to the deterioration of detente.
3. New nuclear arms race: The development of advanced nuclear weapons and increased military spending by both the United States and the Soviet Union reignited a costly arms race. While this posed financial burdens for the West, it placed even greater strain on the economically weaker Eastern Bloc countries, exacerbating the divide between the two blocs.

Important The Crisis Years (1980s)

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Soviet Union

\-       economic and political stagnation under Leonid Brezhnev and Yuri Andropov

\-       election of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985

\-       Glasnost (transparency) and Perestroika (polit. and econ. reforms to start the revitalize the economy)

\-       renewal of détente - because arms race was very costly 

 

Gorbachev unleashed an uncontrollable dynamic in Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at large 

\-       dynamization of opposition movements demanding internal reforms and more national autonomy (Charter 77 more active, the same for Polish solidarity movement

\-       generational conflicts, politicization of youth culture

\-       intensification of contacts between East and West through travel arrangements

by 1989, system is creaking at the seams

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London explanation-

Long exp. Crisis 1980s

Soviet Union:

* The Soviet Union faced economic and political stagnation under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev and Yuri Andropov.
* In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev introduced reforms such as Glasnost (transparency) and Perestroika (political and economic restructuring) in an attempt to revitalize the Soviet economy and address societal issues.
* Gorbachev sought to renew detente, as he recognized that the arms race was placing a heavy financial burden on the Soviet Union.

Unleashing of Uncontrollable Dynamics:

* Gorbachev's reforms unleashed a wave of opposition movements throughout the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, demanding internal reforms and greater national autonomy. For example, Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia and the Solidarity movement in Poland became more active.
* Generational conflicts emerged, with the younger generation becoming politically and culturally engaged. Youth culture became politicized, and there was a growing demand for change and openness.
* Contacts between Eastern and Western countries increased, thanks to eased travel arrangements. This facilitated greater cultural exchange and intensified the flow of information.

Creaking System:

* By the late 1980s, the communist system in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe was under significant strain. The combination of Gorbachev's reforms, growing opposition movements, and increasing contact with the West put pressure on the existing political and economic structures.
* Ultimately, these dynamics contributed to the weakening and eventual collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe, culminating in the events of 1989, such as the fall of the Berlin Wall and the revolutions in Central and Eastern European countries.

L11 Western Europe after the Boom

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## 1.     General characteristics of the Postwar settlement

* Postwar period marked by transformative effects on politics, economics, society, and culture
* Sustained economic boom and American leadership characterized the period from 1945 to 1970
* Referred to as the "golden age of capitalism" by Eric Hobsbawm
* Dynamic economic growth contributed to the consolidation of democracies
* Democracy gained acceptance, particularly in Italy and Germany
* Expansion of welfare regimes played a role in the acceptance of democratic forms of government
* Welfare measures addressed issues such as illness, poverty, and unemployment, providing a safety net for citizens
* Welfare arrangements also served as political measures to gain support and secure elections
* Western capitalist system demonstrated its advantages compared to the Eastern bloc during the Cold War
* Western Europe's integration into supranational institutions like NATO and the EEC (European Economic Community)
* Integration fostered mutual trust, confidence, and prevented conflicts
* EEC integration helped West Germany gain credibility and trust within the European framework

## 1.     Transformation of industrial society

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Postwar settlement came under pressure because of the transformation of industrial society.

\-       Shrinking of old industries

coal: late 50s, shrank because of new technologies= rationalisation, but also existing seams that could be easily mined. Oil was a new source of energy and it had the advantage that it was very cheap.

Iron and steel: suffering from competition, non-european

textile: from competition from non-european areas late 1960s also south european countries, jobs were disappearing).

People with lost jobs found jobs in other industries, more modern. But eventually,rationalization reached these new industries too→ a potential for unemployment began to open up.

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Constant influx of women into workplaces. Parttime, but also secretarial, white collar jobs. As a result of the expansion of the welfare state.

 

We have a workforce whose gender composition begins to change. 50s and 60s, more and more people worked. Situation of full employment. Shortage workers led to recruitment of forgein workers in the 1970s. Workforce is no longer homogenous

\-       European companies reacted to the new form of specialization.

Expansion of more innovative industrial sectors (chemical, electronics)

\-       Expansion of the service sector, including public employment in welfare regimes: during the boom incomes went up, workers consumed more, labor cost raised and production cost as well.

\-       Novel forms of rationalization

⇒ What we see is competition becoming heavier because of higher costs. During the boom, incomes go up, for companies it raises a problem labor costs.

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Transformation gender order and multiecthnic workforce.

 

We have a workforce whose gender composition begins to change. 50s and 60s, more and more people worked. Situation of full employment. Shortage workers led to recruitment of forgein workers in the 1970s. Workforce is no longer homogenous

\-       European companies reacted to the new form of specialization.

Expansion of more innovative industrial sectors (chemical, electronics)

\-       Expansion of the service sector, including public employment in welfare regimes: during the boom incomes went up, workers consumed more, labor cost raised and production cost as well.

\-       Novel forms of rationalization

⇒ What we see is competition becoming heavier because of higher costs. During the boom, incomes go up, for companies it raises a problem labor costs.

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Transformation gender order and multiecthnic workforce.

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## *a)*    Emergence of economic problems: this transformation towards a post-industrial societystruck more as a crisis.

\-       *Lower growth rates:* comparing the present 1970s with the 50s and 60s. Which seemed stable. Supposedly the golden age was taken as the standard, and the rest of the ages failed to live up to. As a result less cake to divide as income.

\-       *Increase in inflation:* stability of money came to be in question. The 50s and 60s were periods of very low inflation. Inflation returned because:

●              People's incomes were higher, which raised production costs which raised prices of products which required people to spend more on these products and led them to ask for higher wages. = inflationary spiral.

●              Key factors for the spiral were: rising wages but not the only one.

●              From 1973 onwards, one central component that influenced all nationaleconomies good no longer be taken for granted: OIL

●              1973: oPEC decided in response to west support of Israel in the war againstEgypt that as a result of this military war, OPEC would reduce oil deliveries.. Triggered huge rise in oil prices→ triggered world wide recession.

●              With inflation because oil was more expensive and oil was an important sourceof energy everything became more expensive.

●              Wage spiral leads to an inflation spiral and as a result, the first world widerecession.

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By the late 70s it is clear that foundations of the old industrial society are under pressure because of sectoral changes and also because the overall economic climate was not as stable as the 1950s. However, Western EU societies became richer and richer, it just became unevenly distributed, if you worked in theless productive sector for instance. For them 70sn and 80s were very affluent.

\-       *Rise in unemployment:* return to unemployment, shock because they thought they defeated unemployment.

In the background of the rise of consumer society, one does notice a rise in political tensions. People could no longer take for granted their job was stable.

*b)*    Continuing expansion of consumer society during the 1970s.

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## 1.     Lines of conflict after the Boom

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*a) General conflict*

Growing affluence of younger people underpins commercial youth culture→ pop and rock. Alsohelped by gradual expansion of educational opportunities. Young people have more money than before, which gives them self-confidence.

They don’t have to worry about getting a job, which leads to them looking at the oldergeneration with criticism.

 

Gradual expansion of independent subcultures

Resistance to authoritarian features of postwar settlement. Youthrevolts.

1968 as first international culmination of youth protests Splintering and radicalization of youth movements after “1968” In 1970s: emergence of terrorist movements

West Germany: Red Army Faction; Italy: red Brigades Diffusionof demands and values throughout society.

 

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* The growing affluence of younger people during the postwar boom contributed to the emergence of commercial youth culture, particularly in the realm of popular music and rock.
* Expanded educational opportunities also played a role in shaping youth culture and providing young people with more economic means and self-confidence.
* The economic prosperity and security of the younger generation allowed them to critique the older generation and the authoritarian features of the postwar settlement.
* Independent subcultures began to form and grow, representing a resistance to the established order.
* The year 1968 marked an international culmination of youth protests, with demonstrations and movements challenging social and political norms.
* Following 1968, youth movements splintered and radicalized, leading to the emergence of terrorist movements in the 1970s.
* Examples of such movements include the Red Army Faction in West Germany and the Red Brigades in Italy.
* The demands and values of these youth movements began to diffuse throughout society, influencing broader social and political dynamics.