Language, Form and Structure in Macbeth: Language, Form & Structure

Narrative structure

Narrative structure describes the order that the writer decides to tell the story in. The genre of the story heavily influences the narrative structure. Macbeth is a tragedy, so it's narrative structure follows a tragic three part model of build up, turning point and the downfall.

Tragedy

A tragedy is a genre of play. A Shakespearean tragedy follows a typical three part structure: the build up, turning point and the tragic hero's eventual downfall. The tragic hero has a fundamental flaw that results in their downfall. In Macbeth's case, his flaw is his ambition to be king.

Build up

This is the first part of a tragedy. Here, the main characters and themes are introduced. Tension builds as the events lead up to the turning point in the play.

Turning point

In a tragedy, the turning point is when the tragic hero (Macbeth) does something that causes their eventual downfall. Duncan's murder is the turning point, for this is the start of Macbeth's downfall.

Eventual downfall

The third part of the play deals with the tragic hero's eventual downfall. This is where the audience are shown how the tragic hero deals with the consequence of their actions in the turning point.

Circular Structure

A circular structure means things end as they started. Macbeth begins the play as a brave soldier. His murder of the king is cowardly and deceitful. However, at the end of the play, Macbeth faces his enemies head on as a brave soldier once more. Another way the play has a circular structure is that it begins with the rule of a just king (Duncan) and ends with the rule of a just king (Malcolm).

Genre

Genre is a style or type of something. In literature, genre refers to the type of story. The genre of Macbeth is tragedy.

Stage directions

Instructions for the actors or director stating where the scene is set, where characters are to stand, what props to use (if any) and what sound effects to include.

Foil

A foil is a character who contrasts with another character to highlight their qualities. Lady Macbeth's foil is Lady Macduff, for Lady Macduff is presented as a conventional shakespearean wife and mother. This contrasts with Lady Macbeth, who plots the murder of the king and manipulates her husband into committing murder in their own house amongst many other things!

Ally

At the start of the play Banquo is Macbeth's ally: Banquo and Macbeth fought together against the invading army, king Duncan asks about both of them in the same sentence and they are both foretold prophecies by the witches. Banquo even keeps the prophecies a secret, which sort of enabled Macbeth to go about murdering king Duncan!

Soliloquy

A soliloquy (pronounced suh-lil-uh-kwee) is a dramatic device when a character says their thoughts and feelings out loud to the audience. Usually, the character is alone on stage and the speech is not heard by other characters in the play.

Equivocation

Equivocation means using language ambiguously to hide a truth or avoid agreeing to something. In Shakespeare's time, Jesuit Catholics used equivocation to keep their faith secret as catholics were persecuted in England. The porter makes reference to equivocation and Father Henry Garnet in A2:S3, a Jesuit Catholic accused of using equivocation while on trial for the Gunpowder Plot of 1505. Interestingly, the witches' apparitions use equivocation and so does Macbeth in the elusive phrase "So foul and fair a day I have not seen" ... is Shakespeare saying that equivocation is a problem?

Paradox

A paradox is a statement that contradicts itself. In other words, it doesn't seem to make much sense. "Fair is foul and foul is fair" is a paradox because fair is the opposite of foul - they are not the same. However, from the witches' perspective a fair world where everyone is happy is probably a foul and horrid thing indeed!

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a phrase that pairs two words with contradictory meanings to hint at a deeper implied meaning. In A2:S3, Macduff calls the honour of hosting Duncan a "joyful trouble". The contradiction between joy and trouble implies that while it is an honour to host the king, it places a heavy burden of responsibility on the host. Also, unbeknown to Macduff, Macbeth has killed Duncan at this point, so ironically the oxymoron also sums up how the Macbeths' might be feeling in this scene: happy at the thought of becoming monarch and equally troubled by the guilt of Duncan's murder.

Unequivocal speech

Unequivocal speech is simple, unambiguous and direct, for it has no hidden meanings. Macduff is an example of a character who speaks without equivocation. He is a plain talking and honest character. For example, Macduff breaks the news of Duncan's death without any poetic imagery ("our royal master's murder'd"), compared to Macbeth who uses metaphorical language ("the wine of life is drawn").

Questions and Statements

Macbeth's language reflects his state of mind. When Macbeth is certain or confident he makes statements like when he commands the witches to "stay". When Macbeth is doubtful or feels guilty he asks questions like "is this a dagger I see before me ... ?". You will notice this pattern with other character too, like Lady Macbeth and Banquo.

Verse and Ramblings

Lady Macbeth's language reflects her state of mind. At the start of the play, Lady Macbeth speaks confidently in eloquent verse, evoking evil spirits and manipulating her husband. However, by the end of the play, Lady Macbeth's language has descended into the ramblings and repetitions of madness.

Metaphor

A metaphor makes a comparison between two things to create a vivid description. For example, in A2:S1, Banquo describes the dark night sky by saying the "candless are all out". Here, Banquo's description compares the starless sky with candles that have been put out. This creates a vivid image of darkness.

Personification

Personification is a specific type of metaphor. It is when a non-living object is described as a person or given human thoughts and feelings. When Macduff says "Bleed, bleed poor country" (A4:S3), he describes Scotland as a person who can be wounded, bleed and feel self pity.

Similes

A simile makes a comparison between two things using the words "like" or "as" to create a vivid description. In A2:S2, Lady Macbeth compares looking at a dead body to looking at a picture: "the sleeping and the dead are but as pictures." The word "as" compares the still dead body to a still lifeless picture of a body.

Pun

A pun is a play on words that sound the same but have different meanings. Sometimes characters make puns for comedic effect, like the porter in A2:S3. However, puns can also be used for sinister effect. For example, when Banquo tries to bring up the topic of the witches' prophecies in A2:S1, Macbeth describes their prophecies as "both grave and prosperous". By "grave" Macbeth means serious, however, it puns with the idea of a burial grave - and the prophecies have resulted in graves! First, Duncan's and next ... Banquo's!

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds within a phrase or sentence. For example: "hover through the fog and filthy air" (A1:S1). Here "f" is repeated to draw emphasis to the words "fog" and "filthy".

Blank verse

Blank verse means a line of verse that does not rhyme. If a character is speaking in verse and there is no rhyming, then they are speaking in blank verse. In Macbeth, verse is usually written in iambic pentameter. When this iambic pentameter does not rhyme, it is called blank verse. An example of blank verse is Duncan's first line in A2:S1 "what bloody man is that? He can report".

Iambic pentameter

Iambic pentameter is a style of verse. Iambic tells us the beat, and pentameter tells us how many pairs of beats. An iambic beat stresses the second syllable in a pair of syllables. The beat goes "dumDA". Pentameter tells us how many pairs of beats to have in a line, which is five: "dumDA, dumDA, dumDA, dumDA, dumDA". An example of blank verse is Duncan's first line in A2:S1 "what BLOO, dy MAN, is THAT, he CAN, rePORT".

Trochaic tetrameter

This is a type of poetic meter. Trochaic is the beat. It means the first syllable is stressed and the second is unstressed (BA-boom). Tetrameter means eight syllables per line, so it goes BA-boom (2), BA-boom (2), BA-boom (2), BA-boom (2). The main thing to remember is that the witches speak in a rapid meter of poetry unlike any of the other characters, which means Shakespeare marks them out as supernatural through their language.

Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of sounds between words. Rhyme usually happens at the end of a line of verse, but can also happen in the same line of verse. In the example "double, double toil and trouble / fire burn, and cauldron bubble" (Witches, A4:S1) "trouble" rhymes with "bubble" through the "ble" sound.

Pace

Pace is the speed or swiftness of a character's speech. Short words and sentences increase the pace, while long words and long sentences decrease the pace. When characters are being thoughtful Shakespeare decreases the pace, when characters are being impulsive or emotional Shakespeare will often increases the pace.

Rhythm

Rhythm is the beat in a line of Shakespeare's verse. The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables creates the rhythm. The rhythm of a character's speech can reflect their state of mind or emotions. Rhythm is usually measured through meters such as Iambic Pentameter.

Mood

The mood is what the audience feels when watching the play. The mood is influenced by the general atmosphere of the scene or act and the characters' thoughts and actions.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere of a scene influences the mood. The atmosphere is created through the words and actions of the characters and their descriptions of the setting. Banquo's description of a starless night sky moments before Duncan's murder creates an "unholy" atmosphere that adds to the sacrilegious mood the audience experience in the build up to Duncan's murder.

Dramatic Irony

When the audience knows something that the characters do not. For example, the audience knows Hecate plans for the apparitions to draw Macbeth "onto his confusion" (A3:S6).

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is when the writer gives a hint or a sign about what will happen. Shakespeare foreshadows Macbeth's disloyalty to Duncan through the title Thane of Cawdor because the last Thane of Cawdor was a traitor too.

Aside

A dramatic device where the audience hears a character's remarks, but the other characters on stage do not.