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Concentration

The amount of solute in a given volume of solution.

Dissolving

The process where solute particles become surrounded by solvent molecules.

Hydrogen Bond

A strong dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen and a highly electronegative atom (N, O, F).

Induced Dipole

Temporary polarization of a neutral atom or molecule caused by nearby charges.

Dipole

A molecule with positive and negative ends due to uneven electron sharing.

Insoluble

Unable to dissolve in a given solvent.

Soluble

Capable of dissolving in a solvent.

Solvent

The substance that does the dissolving (usually in greater amount).

Solute

The substance being dissolved.

Saturated Solution

Contains the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature.

Unsaturated Solution

Can dissolve more solute at a given temperature.

Mole

6.022 x 10^23 particles of a substance.

Molarity (M)

Moles of solute per liter of solution.

Precipitate

A solid formed in a solution during a chemical reaction.

Physical Model

A tangible representation (e.g., a model of a molecule).

Conceptual Model

An abstract explanation (e.g., the quantum model of the atom).

Atom

The smallest unit of an element.

Proton

Positively charged subatomic particle in the nucleus.

Neutron

Neutrally charged subatomic particle in the nucleus.

Nucleon

A proton or neutron.

Atomic Number

Number of protons.

Mass Number

Protons + Neutrons.

Atomic Mass

Weighted average of all isotopes.

Atomic Spectrum

Set of wavelengths emitted by electrons moving between energy levels.

Photon

A packet of electromagnetic energy.

Quantum

A discrete quantity of energy.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Range of all types of EM radiation.

Wavelength

Distance between peaks of a wave.

Hertz (Hz)

Unit of frequency, 1 cycle per second.

Isotope

Same number of protons, different number of neutrons.

Ion

An atom with a charge due to lost or gained electrons.

Electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle.

Inner Shell Shielding

Inner electrons block the attraction of valence electrons to the nucleus.

Effective Nuclear Charge

Net positive charge felt by valence electrons.

Valence Shell

Outermost shell of electrons.

Valence Electron

Electron in the outermost shell involved in bonding.

Nonbonding Pair

Electron pairs not shared in bonding.

physical models

when a tangible structure helps understand form/scale (e.g., a DNA model).

conceptual models

for abstract systems (e.g., atomic orbitals, electron clouds).

Thomson (Cathode Ray):

Discovery of electrons

Rutherford (Gold Foil

Discovered nucleus; atom is mostly empty space.

Bohr (Spectral Lines

Electrons exist in specific energy levels.

Properties of Light

Has both wave and particle nature

Orbitals

• Regions of high electron probability.

• Capacity:

  • s: 2

  • p: 6

  • d: 10

  • f: 14

Ion Charge

Protons - Electrons.

Metals

lose e⁻ → cations

Nonmetals

gain e⁻ → anions

Metallic Bonding

• Electrons delocalized over lattice of metal atoms.

  • Explains conductivity, ductility, malleability.

Electron Geometry

Total regions of electron density.

Molecular Shape

Based on atoms only e.g., Linear, Bent, Trigonal Planar, Tetrahedral.

Solution

Homogeneous mixture of solute in solvent

Electronegativity

Atom's ability to attract e⁻.

Polar Bond

Electrons shared unequally

Nonpolar Bond

Electrons shared equally

Molecule Polarity

Depends on bond polarity & shape

Dipole-Dipole

Between polar molecules

Dispersion (London)

Weakest, in all molecules

Ion-Dipole

Between ion and polar molecule

Inducing Dipoles

I₂ becomes polarizable due to large electron cloud

Fluorine induced dipole

Hard to polarize due to high electronegativity

Methane (gas) vs. Octane (liquid)

Stronger dispersion forces in octane due to larger size.

Saran Wrap Sticking

Due to dispersion forces

Molarity Calculation

Activation Energy

The minimum energy needed to start a chem reaction

Avogadros Number

6.022 x 10^23: number of atoms or molecules in 1 mole of substance

catalyst

substance that speeds up a chem reaction whichout being consumed

chemical equation

symbolic represnetation of chem reaction

Endothermic

reaction that absorbs heat from surroundings

Exothermic

reaction that releases heat to the surroundings

Formula Mass

sum of atomic masses in a chem formula

Molar Mass

Mass of one mole of a substance in g/mol

Reaction Rate

speed at which reactancts are converted to products in a reaction

Acid

Substance that donates a proton (HYDROGEN+/in front)

Base

substance that accpets a proton or donate OH-

Amphoteric

substancce that can act as both acid AND base

hydronium ion (H3O+)

formed when an acid donates a proton to water

Hydroxide ion (OH-)

made when a base dissolves in water

basic solution

contains more OH- than H3O+

acidic solution

has more H3O+ than OH-

neutral solution

equal amt of H3O+ & OH-

pH

scale that measures acidity or basicity

Salt

ionic compound formed from acid base neutralization

reduction

GAIN of electrons

Oxidation

LOSS of electrons

half reactions

seperate equations showing both oxidation & reduction

oxidizing agent

this is what causes oxidation: gets reduced

reducing agent

causes reduction: gets oxidized

Solubility Determinates

Factors are polarity, temperature, and pressure

Temperature effects on Solubility (S)

solid in liquids: solubility INCREASES with temperature

Temperature effects on Solubility (G)

Gases in liquids: solubility DEACRESES with temperature

Increase Gas solubility in liquid

The LOWER the temp & INCREASE pressure

Nonpolar Gas (CO2 & O2)

a lil soluble in water

soap molecules

Soap has polar heads & nonpolar tails

Hard Water

hella high concentration of dissolved minerals Ca2+ & Mg2+

Hard Water + Soap (problem)

The Ca & Mg forms scum with the soap cuz hella insoluble

Hard Water + Soap (solution)

(Water softners) ion exchangers like Na+ ions to replace the Ca & Mg

Chemical Reaction

process where reactancts turn into products

Reactants

starting substnaces the OG

Products

The result NEWGEN

balancing equations

use coefficients to balance the atoms on both sides