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Hydroelectric power or hydropower plant

Hydroelectric power or hydropower plant

-Most common type of power plant that uses dam on a river to store water

-capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity

-can store energy through pump storage

Since 1700’s

It is when flowing of water in rivers and streams has been used to produced electricity.

Hydropshere

Liquid portion of Earth by almost 70%

Hydropshere

Liquid portion of Earth by almost 70%

Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, spring

natural sources of water

Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean

3 largest oceans

Water

Made up of atoms

Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, spring

natural sources of water

Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals

Man-made sources of water

Soil

Part of regolith supports growth of plants

Mineral matter (broken down rock), humus, water, air

4 components of soil

Regolith

Layer of rock and mineral fragments

Water

Made up of atoms

Atoms

Bond together to form molecules

O horizons

Largely organic materials

A horizons

Largely mineral matter and humus

E horizons

Light colored layer with little organic material, site of eluviation and leaching

Dynamic water cycle

Where water is constantly evaporating from both water and land surfaces

C horizons

Partially altered parent materials

R horizons

Unweathered plants material

O horizons

Organic layer

A horizons

Topsoil

Soil

Part of regolith supports growth of plants

Mineral matter (broken down rock), humus, water, air

4 components of soil

C horizons

Parent rock

Regolith

Layer of rock and mineral fragments

Soil horizions

Zone or layers of soils

Why is soil a necessary resource?

-helps sustain life on Earth

-helps purify, clean water

-decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients

-provide home for variety of living things

Farming, construction and development, mining, waste disposal

4 major human activities cause soil degradation

Construction and development

Land use conversion usually done to support urbanization activities can cause rapid soil degradation and sedimentation

Soil profile

Vertical section through all soil horizons

Waste disposal

Causes soil pollution and alters soil's natural health and quality

Forest protection, buffer strips, no-till farming, fewer concrete surfaces, plant windbreak areas, terrace planting, afforestation, no soil compacting, control strom water,

9 remarkble ways to protect, conserve soil

Forest protection

Soil qualities are ensured when forest are protected

O horizons

Largely organic materials

A horizons

Largely mineral matter and humus

No-till farming

Allows crops to remain in place for a season and keep the soil from being left bare and unprotected

Plant windbreak areas

Composed of shrubs, plants and trees in which slows the force of wind over ground areas

Terrace planting

Done by maximizing the topography of the land, also a proven method to encourage growth form moist soil areas

Control storm water

Setting up large container to hold excess water

Weathering

Physical disintegration or chemical alteration of rocks

Erosion

Physical removal and transportation of weathered material by water

Mass wasting

Transfer or movement of rock or soil down slope

Deposition

Weathered and eroded materials are laid down or placed in a location different from their source

Mechanical (physical) weathering

Physical disintegration and reduction in the size of rocks

Biological weathering

Decomposes or decay of rocks and minerals caused by chemical agents of organism

Chemical weathering

Dissolves and weakens rocks through chemical processes

Mechanical, chemical, biological

Types of weathering

Exfoliation and forst wedging

Types of mechanical weathering

Exfoliation

-rock pressure released along parallel alignments near the surface of bedrocks

-occurs on intrusive igneous or metamosphosed rocks

Frost wedging

-Process caused by the freeze-thaw action of water trapped between cracks in rock

-expand and applies pressure to surrounding rocks

-gradually breaks rock through repetitive freeze thaw

-produces angular blocks and talus material

Salt wedging

When salt crystallize out of solution as water evaporates, common in dries climates such as desserts

Abrasion

When rocks collide against each other while they are transported by water, glacial ice, wind or gravitational force, slowly break apart into progressively smaller particles

Carbonation, hydrolysis, hydration, oxidation, solution

Types of chemical weathering

Carbonation

Produce carbonic acid, remove chemically weathered materials, occurs with limestone or dolomite

Hydrolysis

Chemical reaction between H+ and OHions in water, creates new compound which tend to be softer, cause certain minerals to expand, affects igneous rocks because they're composed of silicate minerals like quarts and feldspar

Hydration

Mineral structure in rock forms a weak bond wit H2O causes the mineral grains to expand, creating stress which causes the disintegration of the rock, expansion of rocks leads to decay and color changes in weathered rock surface.

Oxidation

When oxygen and water react with iron-rich minerals and weaken the structure of minerals. Minerals in rocks will change colors like rusty or reddish orange appearance. Rock decay making it more vulnerable

Solution

Minerals in rock dissolves directly into water. Large areas of bedrock may cause sinkholes from, where large areas of the ground subside or collapse forming a depression

Types of bilogical weathering

Burrowing, tunneling, and acid-secreting organisms

Lichen and algae

Often live on bare rock and extract minerals from rock by bio-exchange mechanisms

Plant roots

Most common form of biochemical weathering which plant roots penetrates into cracks and crevices of rocks and cause the rock to split or break into smaller particles

Water

Erodes rocks by transporting weathered materials from their source to another location where they are deposited

Wind

Erodes materials by picking them up and temporarily transporting them, stored or re-mobilized and transported to another location

Ice

Particles plucked up or incorporated by moving ice such as glaciers, transported downhill

Gravity

Facilitates down slope, major component of mass wasting events

Mass wasting

Rapid form or erosion that works primarily under the influence of gravity in combination of other erosional agents

Rock falls, landslides, debris/mud flows slumps, creep

Types of Mass wasting

Rock falls

Rock became dislodge

Landslides

Weather rock material slide down a hillslope or mountain side

Debris and mud flows

Heavy rainfalls produce large amount of runoff that transport eroded soils, sediments, and plant debris down slope across valley

Slump

Rock or soil collapses, breaks off, rotates slightly and slumps downhill

Creep

Slowest mass wasting process

Metamorphism

Change of minerals or geologic texture , change due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids

Pressure

With increasing depth, there is a corresponding increase in pressure

Temperature

Most important agent of metamorphism is heat because it provides energy drives the chemical changes

Chemically reactive fluids

Also enhance the metamorphic process, the fluid is water containing ions and solution

Metamorphic process causes:

Increased density, growth of larger mineral crystals reorientation of mineral grains

Schist

Crystalline rock has tendency to split into layers. Banding foliation is absent. Composed of platy minerals like muscovite, talc, feldspar, quartz.

Gneiss

Metamorphic rock that has distinct banding which is apparent in hand specimen or on a microscopic scale. Distinguished by its foliation and schistosity, poor developed schistosity and foliation

Skarn

Metamorphic rock developed in contact area around igneous rock intrusions

Quartzile

Free from pores, have smooth fracture, they break through and not around sand. Snowy white less often pink or gray

Marble

Granular limestone or dolomite of calcium that has been recrystallised under influence of heat, pressure, and aqueous solutions

Deformation of rock

When rocks bend, twist or fracture

Stresses

Being referred to when rock are deformed

Folds, fault, and joints

Different type of deformation

Folds

Flat-lying sedimentary and volcanic rocks bent into wavelike undulations

Faults

Fractures in crust along which appreciable displacement has occured

Diastrophism

Deformation movement of Earth, faulting and folding

Example of diastrophism

Features like continents, ocean basins, and mountains

Stress

Force applied over an area

Uniform tress

“pressure” or “confining stress”, forces act equally from all directions

Differential stress

If stress is nor equal from all directions

3 kinds of differential stress

Tensional, compressional, shear stress

Tensional stress

“extensional stress”, stretches rocks

Compressional stress

Squeezes rocks

Shear stress

Result in slippage and translation

Shearing

Rock layers slide past each other

Elastic deformation

Strain is reversible