AP Psychology Unit 1 Biological Bases of Behavior

Vocabulary from Unit 1 of AP Psychology (Biological Bases of Behavior)

Phrenology

The belief that the bumps of the skull can predict mental ability and character traits.

Franz Gall suggested this in the 1800s. Bumps represented having that mental ability, and dips meant you didn’t have it.

Sensory Neurons

These carry information from the body’s tissues and organs to the central nervous system.

Interneuron

Also known as “relay neurons”, these are in the spinal cord only and link the motor neurons with the sensory neurons. They also make sense of what is going on in the body. They are within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs.

Reflexes!

Motor Neurons

These carry instructions from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Glial Cells

These provide nutrition and insulation for neurons. It is what makes up the myelin sheaths.

Cell Body

This is the life supported center of the neuron.

Dendrites

These are branching extensions at the cell body. They receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

This is a long single extension of a neuron, covered with a myelin sheath.

Myelin Sheath

This insulates and speeds up messages through neurons. It does not regulate the release of neurotransmitters.

Terminal Branches of Axon

These are branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.

Action Potential

A charge that travels down an axon, generated by the movement of positively charged atoms (Sodium and Potassium) in and out of the axon.

Polarization (resting potential)

This is when negative ions enter the neuron making it less prone to firing an action potential.

Depolarization (action potential)

This is when positive ions enter the neuron, making it more prone to firing an action potential.

Hyperpolariztion

This is the opposite of depolarization. It makes a neuron less prone to firing. It is when the membrane potential becomes more negative at a particular spot on the neuron's membrane, whereas depolarization is when the membrane potential becomes less negative (more positive).

Refractory Period

This is the resting state after firing in which the neuron goes back to its polarized

Synapse

This is the tiny gap between sending and receiving a neuron is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

Re-Uptake

This is when neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neuron through BLANK.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals which allow the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses.

Inhibitory Receptors

This reduces the chance that a transfer will occur.

Ex. ACh: A muscle moving chemical. Snake venom blocks ACh resulting in paralysis. (also people who have Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease tend to have low levels of acetylcholine.)

Excitatory Receptors

These are transmitters that make a neuron more likely to fire an action potential. Things such as nicotine, alcohol, and opiates excite transmitters which leads to a happier feeling.

Lock and Key Mechanism

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron by BLANK.

Agonists

BLANK mimic neurotransmitters

Antagonists

BLANK block transmitters.

Depressants

A drug that reduces functional or nervous activity. ex: alcohol, barbiturates, opioids.

Hallucinogens

These are psychedelic drugs that can potentially change the way people see, hear, taste, smell or feel, and also affect mood and thought.

Examples: LSD, marijuana, NDE’s.

Brainstem

This is the oldest part of the brain. It is responsible

for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

This is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation

This is a nerve network that plays an important role in controlling arousal. Its nuclei are found deep within the brainstem.

Thalamus

It directs messages (think of a post office to the sensory areas in the cortex. It lies above the brainstem in the middle of the brain.

Cerebellum

It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. It is the portion of the brain in the back of the head between the cerebrum and the brain stem. The BLANK controls balance for walking and standing, and other complex motor functions. It is between the Brainstem and Cerebrum.

Limbic System

Emotions originate from here. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

This is responsible for emotions of fear and anger. It is located in front of the hippocampus, one on each hemisphere of the brain.

Hippocampus

This part of the brain is involved in memory, learning, and emotion. It’s main job is to hold short term memories and transfer them to long term storage in the brain.

Hypothalamus

This part of the brain keeps the body in homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones.

Flight, fight, food, fornication (reproduction).

Cerebral Cortex

The “modern brain”. This is the “rind” that is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center. Also known as “grey matter”. It is made of 4 lobes:

• frontal (forehead): voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions

• parietal (top to rear end): sensory perception and integration,

• occipital (back head): visual perception, including colour, form and motion

• temporal (side of head): processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory.

Pre-Frontal Cortex

This is one of the last places in the brain to mature, in the early to mid twenties. This is the front of the front. Helps with: planning, decision making, expression, social behavior.

Motor Cortex

This is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The right BLANK controls the movement of the left side. Like wise, the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum.

Sensory Cortex

This (parietal cortex) receives information from skin surface and sense organs. The left BLANK senses with the right side of the body and vice versa.

Association Areas

These allow the sensory and motor cortex to communicate with each other. The BLANK for “feel” in blind people is larger in blind people.

Aphasia

This is a language impairment, usually caused by damage to Broca’s area (speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (understanding). Also language is only in the left side of the brain.

Plasticity

This is the brain’s ability to modify itself after some type of injury or illness.

Left Hemisphere

This part of the brain processes reading, writing, speaking, and mathematics. (language)

Right Hemisphere

This part of the brain is more abstract and spatial.

Corpus Callosotomy

This is a surgical procedure used to treat atonic seizures, also called drop attacks, by dividing all or part of the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres. Patients who have had this “split-brain” procedure are able to name objects presented in the right visual field but not in the left visual field.

Annual Cycles

Seasonal variations in appetite, sleep, and mood. Ex. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a mood disorder people experience during dark winter months.

28-day cycles

The female menstrual cycle averages 28 days. Not so sure about what sir Chuck wrote for that second sentence.

24-hour Cycle

24- hour cycles of varying alertness (sleep). Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness.

Awake and Alert Brain Waves

Beta Waves (15-30 cps)

Awake and Relaxed

Alpha Waves (9-15) cps)

Sleep stages 1 and 2 (spindles)

Theta waves (5-8 cps)

Sleep stages 3 and 4

Delta Waves (2-4 cps)

Stage 5 REM Sleep

Dreaming occurs. Back to Beta waves. “Paradoxical’ sleep.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking

Night terrors

Intense fear with physiological reactions. “Old Hag” syndrome.

Narcolepsy

Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur anytime.

Sleep Apnea

Failure to breathe when asleep. Snoring.

Genes

These are made up of chromosomes and are the biochemical units of heredity. We get 23 chromosomes from both mom and dad, so 46 total. Chromosomes are composed of DNA.

Genome

It is all the genetic information of an organism.

Nervous System

This is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system.It is made up of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

This includes the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

These are the sensory/motor neurons (nerves) that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It includes somatic and autonomic systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system, this system voluntarily controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Its also known as the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system, this system automatically controls the glands and other muscles. (ex. digestion, breathing). This system can be further split into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system, this arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system, this system calms the body, conserving its energy.

Endocrine System

This is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.

Pituitary

“The Master Gland’ that regulates the other glands.

Thyroid

This regulates metabolism and development

Parathyroid

This regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood.

Adrenal

This secretes hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine during “Fight or flight” situations.

Pancreas

This is a large gland in the back of your belly. It releases enzymes to help with digestion and hormones to regulate blood sugar.

Gonads

The testes or ovaries, the organ regulates body development and reproductive organs. Testosterone in males and estrogen in females.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

This releases melatonin, helping us fall asleep. Bright lights turn it off, keeping us awake.

Endorphins

These are neurotransmitters released by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus in the brain. As natural hormones, they can alleviate pain, lower stress, improve mood, and enhance your sense of well-being. The body releases them when you do pleasurable activities like eating and exercising.

Parkinson’s Disease

This disease is marked by the death of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain — specifically in the substantia nigra, a structure deep within a region of the brain called the midbrain.

Dopamine is the chemical messenger that transmits signals in the brain to produce smooth, purposeful movement.

PET Scan

This depicts brain activity by showing each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel, glucose.

EEG

This is an amplified readout of the brains neuron waves.

MEG

This measures magnetic fields from the brains natural electrical activity.

CT

This scan takes x-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage.

MRI

This is a type of diagnostic test that can create detailed images of nearly every structure and organ inside the body. It uses magnets and radio waves to produce images on a computer. It does not use ionizing radiation. Images produced by the scan can show organs, bones, muscles and blood vessels.

fMRI

This uses the same MRI machine, but it looks at the function of the brain and it also tracks blood flow in different parts of the brain. Our brain cells use more oxygen when they're working. That means following the blood flow shows the areas of your brain that are working hardest.

Sensation

Detection of energy from any of our 5 senses.

Perception

Processing the energy from sensations into meaning.

Bottom-Up Processing

This is when you sense something, and THEN the brain tells us what that is. ex. “what is that smell? Oh, pancakes!”

Top-Down Processing

This is based on our experiences. It is when first we perceive in our brain, THEN we sense. ex. “We are going to a bonfire party", and you already have some idea of what to expect and to sense.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise.

Our detection gets better based on our:

• Context (experience)

• expectations/motivation

• emotions (fear)

Difference Threshold

This is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Subliminal Threshold

This is when stimuli are below one’ absolute threshold for conscious awareness. Ads?

These are stimuli you can not consciously detect 50% of the time.

Weber’s Law

This states that to notice a difference, the stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, not a constant amount.

Stimulus: Constant (k)

Light 8%

Weight 2%

Tone 3%

Sensory Adaptation

Constant stimulation numbs our senses as we adapt to that stimulus. Ex. you don’t feel a band-aid on your arm mere minutes after you put it on.

Visual Information Processing

Processing many aspects of the stimulus simultaneously is called parallel processing. Ex. color, motion, form, depth.

Transduction

This is the transformation of stimulus energy into meaningful information.

Wavelength

This determines the hue (color) of the light. A shorter BLANK means a higher frequency (bluish colors, high pitched sounds), whereas a longer BLANK means a lower frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds).

Intensity

Amplitude (height) of the wave is related to brightness. A big amplitude results in bright colors, loud sounds. A small amplitude results in dull colors, soft sounds.

Cornea

Where the light enters the eye

Pupil

Adjustable opening in center, which light enters.

Iris

This is the muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of the opening (pupil) for light.

Lens

This focuses the light rays on the retina

Retina

Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and sends it to the brain.

Contains receptor rods (movement) and cones (color), bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.

Rods

These are movement detectors on our periphery (120 mil.)