Young Women, femininity and violence

Current context of violence

1) Men commit more violent crime and at a much higher rate than women

2) Crime/violence is constructed as a male problem

Why is there gender disparity?

1) Humans have innate capacity (are ‘hard-wired’) for violence. Males evolved to be more violent than females. Aggression increases their chances of finding a mate and procreating

2) Aggression/violence linked to biochemicals (e.g. testosterone) which is highest in males

Socialisation and gender disparity

1) Boys are socialised to compete, be tough, be smart and ambitious; to have a public-facing role (job). Boys exposed to ‘criminal cultures’ that value toughness and violence more than girls

2) Girls experience more social control and supervision than boys. Encouraged to identify with mother, family and take up role of primary carer

Masculinity and gender disparity

1) Masculinity is constructed. It is a situated accomplishment; a performance that men have to consistently work at

2) Different forms of masculinities co-exist with ‘hegemonic’ masculinity the dominant one that men wish to perform. Some men have ‘subordinate’ masculinities

What does Messerschmidt say about gender disparity?

1) Crime/violence is a resource used by boys and men to accomplish masculinity when other ways of achieving it is not available to them

2) Excluded BAME youth use violence and ‘gang’ membership to express masculinity

Subcultural theory (Cohen, 1955)

* Subcultures arise from ‘status frustration’ experienced by working class boys unable to meet middle class expectations
* Females not fully considered
* Female ‘status frustration’ connected to male experience

Differential opportunity (Cloward and Ohlin, 1960)

* Crime/delinquency arises when opportunities are blocked
* Females not pushed into delinquency because of struggle for material success or status (as for men) → this is because females are not judged by their success in society

Biological positivism (Lombroso 1898)

* Female offenders have particular physiological (e.g. moles, hairy faces, teeth missing) and psychological (vengeful, gluttonous,) traits.
* Individuals are ‘born criminal’. Women are generally ‘atavistic’. Women not evolved as most men; therefore can’t do crime as well.

Offending women- psychological

* Female offenders suffer from a ‘masculinity complex’ stemming from ‘penis envy’
* Boys think girls are castrated boys. They experience fear of losing their penis so, in order to protect it, align and identify with the father
* Girls realise they don’t have what the boys have got (power) and experience ‘envy’. Consequently, they become jealous, envious and vengeful against them

Offending by girls and women (UK)

* Serious violent crime perpetrated by girls/young women is rare
* Historically, theft and handling stolen goods was the offence group which accounted for the largest proportion of arrests of juvenile females

Why is the disparity gap closing?

* Liberation thesis (Adler)
* Liberal feminism
* Increased economic and social opportunities

Push factors as to why girls end up in gangs

* Unstable care
* Isolation
* Poverty
* Victimisation

Attraction (pull) reasons as to why girls end up in gangs

* Freedom
* Friendship/ emotional support
* Safety and protection
* Search for respect and status

Sharpe (2012) offending girls

Offending female population is small so a slight increase in numbers results in a large percentage rise

Why has female offending increased, as argued by Sharpe?

* Policy changes- CJ response to offending
* Intolerance and parental inability to control daughters behaviour

Gender and crime, Pollack (1951)

* Girls and women’s offending linked to their sexuality


* Women do not commit less crime than men; they are just better at hiding it

Chivalry thesis (1961)

Females are treated leniently in CJS because magistrates police and judges are acting ‘chivalrously’ towards them. Leads to disparity in the statistics underestimating the level of female offending

Are women treated more leniently?

Women more likely to be dealt with by out of court disposals i.e., cautioned or penalty notice for disorder

Ethnic differences

* BAME more likely to plead not guilty


* Black women are more likely to be remanded or sentenced to custody compared to other races