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behaviorism
A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors rather than internal mental states.
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
acquisition
When a previously neutral stimulus begins triggering a conditioned response.
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
unconditioned response
The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
neutral stimulus
A stimulus that gets a subject’s attention but otherwise does not produce a measurable response.
conditioned stimulus
The former neutral stimulus after it has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus and now elicits a conditioned response.
conditioned response
The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (but now conditioned stimulus).
extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response.
spontaneous recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
higher-order conditioning
Occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, leading the new neutral stimulus to evoke a conditioned response.
contingencies
The relationship between stimuli and responses, and the consequences that follow those responses.
counterconditioning
A psychological technique used to change or replace an undesirable response to a stimulus with a more desirable response.
taste aversion
When an individual develops a strong dislike or avoidance of a particular taste (or food) after it has been paired with an unpleasant or harmful experience.
one-trial conditioning
A form of classical conditioning in which a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) is sufficient to establish a conditioned response (CR).
biological preparedness
Suggests that humans and other animals are inherently predisposed to learn certain associations and behaviors more easily than others due to evolutionary factors.
habituation
A form of learning in which an organism gradually decreases or ceases to respond to a repeated stimulus.
operant conditioning
A type of behavior modification that relies on learning through consequences.
reinforcement
Stimuli that encourage the repetition of a behavior.
punishment
Stimuli that discourage the repetition of a behavior.
law of effect
Behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.
primary reinforcement
Stimuli that are inherently satisfying or rewarding because they directly satisfy basic biological needs or drives.
secondary reinforcer
Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.
positive reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
negative reinforcement
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
reinforcement discrimination
An organism learns to respond differently to two or more stimuli that are similar but have different consequences.
reinforcement generalization
Where a response that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus also occurs in the presence of similar stimuli.
positive punishment
Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
negative punishment
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
shaping
Reinforcing approximations of a desired behavior.
instinctive drift
When animals revert to their innate, instinctual behaviors instead of performing the trained operant response.
superstitious behavior
Actions or behaviors that are performed in a seemingly random or arbitrary manner but are mistakenly believed to cause a desired outcome or prevent an undesirable one.
aversive consequences
Outcomes or stimuli that are unpleasant or undesirable, leading to a decrease in the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
continuous reinforcement
When a desired behavior is reinforced each and every time it is displayed.
partial reinforcement
When a desired behavior is reinforced intermittently.
fixed-interval
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
fixed-ratio
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
variable-interval
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
variable-ratio
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
social learning theory
Bandura’s theory that emphasizes the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in the acquisition of new behaviors.
vicarious conditioning
The idea that individuals are influenced by the consequences experienced by the models they observe.
modeling
Imitating the behavior of others.
insight learning
A form of learning characterized by sudden and spontaneous understanding or realization of a problem or solution, often occurring without trial-and-error or repeated practice.
latent learning
A form of learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement or immediate behavioral changes.
cognitive mapping
The mental representation or internal map that individuals create to organize and navigate their environment.
