Organic + Physical

How does the mass spectrometry work?

- The sample is vaporised so that it is a gas and it is injected into the spectrometer.
- Positive ions are produced by stripping off outer electrons from atoms. Done by blasting the sample with electrons which knock off the electron(s) to make an ion
- The ion is then able to move through the spectrometer and is accelerated by an electric field
- The speed the ions travel depends on their mass.
- This is seen through the heavier and lighter ions being deflected into the EM magnet
- The stronger the field, the greater the deflection.
- The remaining ions then travel to the detector
- There is a vacuum so that no other atoms or molecules from outside interfere with the result of the detector.
The ions are then detected by an accurate detector.

What are the four stages of the mass spectrometry?

- Ionisation
- Acceleration
- Deflection
- Detection

Formula of one atom of an element

Relative abundance x Mass / 100

What is the definition of the First Ionisation Energy?

The energy required to remove ONE MOLE of electrons from ONE MOLE of gaseous atoms to form ONE MOLE of gaseous positive ions.

How do you do the First Ionisation Energy?

As an example: Mg -> Mg⁺+e^-

What are the maximum electrons in the first and second shell?

1st - 2
2nd - 8

What is the maximum electrons in the 3rd shell?

18

What is the maximum electrons in the 4th shell?

32

What is the maximum electrons in the 5th shell?

50

What is the Heinsburg principle?

You cannot have the direction and momentum of an electron at the same time

What is the Aufbau principle?

Electrons enter the lowest available energy level

What is Pauil's principle?

Two electrons can go in each orbital only if they spin opposite ways

What is Hund's principle?

When in orbitals of equal energy, electrons will try to remain unpaired.

What are the orbitals letters?

s,p,d,f

What is an orbital?

A region of space where one is likely to find an electron.

What are the properties of the 's' orbital?

- spherical in size
- There is one 's' orbital in every energy level (shell)
- Can hold 2e^-

What are the properties of the 'p' orbital?

- Dumbell shape
- There is three orbitals in level 2 onwards
- It can hold 6e^-

What is the properties of the 'd' orbital?

- It has various shapes
- There are five orbitals from level 3 onwards
- It can hold up to 10e^-

How does the electrons fill up the sub shells?

They go in order e.g 1s,2s,2p,3s....

What is an exception when the electrons fill up the shells?

When the electrons fill up the sub shells, 4s goes in front of 3d because the shells are very close together so the distance is very close between the two sub shells which causes electrons to go to 4s first then they go and fill up 3d

How are losing electrons represented in the electromagnetic structure?

They start from the highest energy level which is 3d decrease

Which two elements are the exception to electrons being lost from the highest energy level and how do they lose their electrons?

Chromium and copper

They lose it by losing the electrons from 4s instead of 3d

How to do Shorthand Electronic Configuration?

You look at the noble gas the period (row) before and then attach the last sub shell on to it e.g [Ne] 3s².

What are the three factors that affect ionisation energy?

• Distance between nucleus and outermost electron
• Nucleus charge
• Electron shielding

How does the distance affect ionisation energy?

As the distance increases, the force between the nucleus and the electron decrease.

How does a charge affect the ionisation energy?

The greater amount of protons, the greater force of attraction between the outer electron and the nucleus.

Hows does shielding affect the ionisation energy?

Reduces the attraction between the nucleus and outer electron because a full shell means more energy required to get the outer electron break the attraction.

What is the first ionisation trend across a period?

The first ionisation energy increases across the period due to:

• Distance decreases
• Proton number increases, so more electrons are attracted to the nucleus
• Electron is closer to the nucleus 

What is the first ionisation energy trend down a group?

The ionisation energy decreases due to:

• Distance increases
• Electron is further away and experiences lower attraction
• Higher electronic shielding

What is a dative covalent bond?

It is when 2 shared electrons are provided by one atom

How does dative covalent bonding work?

The atom accepting and sharing the lone pair of electrons must have an incomplete outer energy level.

How is dative covalent bonding represented?

By : ->

Properties of AB2 (linear)

It has a bonding angle of 180°
Has 2 bonding pairs and no lone pairs
Has 2 negative centres

Properties of a trigonal planar

Has 3 bonding pairs
Has bond angle of 120°
Has 3 negative centres

Properties of a tetrahedral

Has 4 bonding pairs
4 negative centres
Bond angle of 109.5°
Has an angle going out of the plane and one going in the plane

Properties of trigonal bypyramidal

Has 5 bonding pairs
5 negative centres
Bond angles of 90° and 120°
Has an angle going out of the plane and one going in the plane

Properties of octahedral

Has 6 bonding pairs
Has 6 negative centres
Has 2 bonds going out of the plane and 2 going in the plane
Bond angle of 90°

Why are the bond angles are far apart as possible

The electron pairs in the bond angles try to get as far as each other

Lone pairs reduce the bond angle by....?

2.5°

How are shapes drawn with lone pairs?

The lone pairs are ignored and the molecule is drawn around the lone pairs

How do ions affect the shape of molecules?

They contribute to the amount of electrons they may have e.g +2 = -2 electrons

What is electronegativity?

The ability to pull a pair of eletrons to itself in a covalent bond

Why does electronegativity increase across a period?

More protons mean stronger attraction the nucleus and the pair of electrons

Why does electronegativity increase up a group?

There is less shells so less shielding and overall less distance which increases the attraction between the nucleus and pair of electrons

What happens when 2 atoms that are bonded have different electronegativities?

A polar bond forms

What does it mean when an element is delta positive?

It means that element is unable to attract the pair of electrons as strongly as the other element

What doe sit mean when an element is delta negative?

It means that the element is much stronger in being able to pull a pair of electrons to itself than the other element.

What are intermolecular forces?

They are weak electrostatic forces of attraction

What does the increase in boilng point do to IMF

It increases the strength of the IMF as well

What are the 3 types of IMF

Van der Wall forces
Dipole Dipole forces
Hydrogen bonding

What does hydrogen bonding require?

A VERY electronegative atom with an available lone pair of electrons. ONLY N,O,F sufficient enough

A H atom directly bonded to a VERY electronegative atom.

- the electronegative atom draws the e^- away from H ( de - shields it), this makes it slightly positive

What does dipole - dipole forces do?

It arises from uneven distribution of electrons caused by differences in the electronegativities

They interact when a force is created form a delta positive and a delta negative atom are next to each other

it creates a permanent dipole 

What do VdW forces do?

They are the weakest forces of attraction

They form when an instantaneous dipole is formed when all the electrons are on one side of the orbital which form a delta negative. This causes an attraction between the instantaneous dipole and the induced dipole as there is a delta negative on one side and a delta positive on the other side.

Then when the instantaneous dipole becomes evenly spread, there is no attraction as there is no delta negative/positive side anymore.

How can VdW forces get stronger?

Number of electrons in a molecule increases
Bpt of noble gases increases down the group as e^- shells are added

What is a homologous series?

Contains the same functional group but varys in the chains when a CH₂ is added/ taken away

What does the prefix of the molecule name tell you?

How many C atoms there are

What is a methyl?

CH3

What is an ethyl?

CH3 - CH2 -

What is a propyl?

CH3 - CH2 - CH2 -

How do the side chain names appear

In alphabetical order

When including the number for the position of the double bond in alkene, which number does it go on?

Lowest possible number

What suffix does an alkene end in?

ene

What suffix does an alcohol end in?

ol

What prefix does an alcohol start with?

hydroxy

What prefix does a haloalkene start with?

Halogen name e.g bromo, chloro

What suffix does an aldehyde end in?

al

What suffix and prefix does a ketone have?

Suffix: one
Prefix: oxo

What suffix does a carboxylic acid end in?

oic acid

What suffix does a nitrile end in?

Nitrile

What suffix/prefix does amine end in?

Suffix: amine
Prefix: amino

What suffix does an ester end in?

oate

What does an alcohol look like?

""

What does a haloalkane look like?

""

What does an aldehyde look like?

""

What does a ketone look like?

""

What does a carboxylic acid look like?

""

What does a nitrile look like?

""

What does an amine look like?

""

What does an ester look like?

""

When can the prefix of the ketone occur?

When there is another functional group e.g an aldehyde

Is a number needed for a carboxylic acid?

Nope

How do you draw in skeletal formula?

You draw lines with each point representing a carbon. There are also branches which come off the carbons and you have to write the molecule that causes the branch. But if its a CH3, then you dont need to write it

What is structural isomerism?

Same molecular formula but different structural formula

Examples of structural isomerism

Chain
Positional
Functional Group

What is chain isomerism?

Same molecular formula but different arrangement of the carbon skeleton

What is position isomerism?

Same molecular formula but different positions of the functional group on the carbon skeleton

What is functional group isomerism?

Same molecular formula but different functional group

What is stereoisomerism?

Same molecular formula but the atoms occupy different positions in space

What is geometric isomerism?

When you have the atoms on the same side of the C=C bond = Z

When the atoms are on opposite sides of the C=C bond = E

How does geometric isomerism happen?

Since there is a C=C double bond, the atoms are unable to rotate and so it barely moves

What are the pairs in functional group isomeris?

Aldehydes and ketones
Carboxylic acids and esters
Alkenes and cycloalkanes

What is a nucleophile?

Electron pair donor

What is an electrophile?

Electron pair acceptor

What is a free radical?

A molecule that has a lone electron or a pair of electrons

What are curly arrows used for?

Used to indicate the movement of electron(s)

What is an arrow with one head called

Fish hook

What is a substitution reaction?

Where one atom/group is replaced by another 
Apllies to molecules containing only single bonds

C-X + Y -> C-Y + X

What is an addition reaction?

Where 2 reactants form 1 product
Applies to molecules with double or triple bonds

C=C + XY -> CX - CY

What is an elimination reaction?

The reverse of an addition reaction
When a small molecule removed from a single molecule, creating a double bond

CX-CY-> C=C + XY

What is a condensation reaction?

When 2 organic molecules link together to form one larger organic molecule and a smaller molecule

M1-a +M2-b -> M1-M2 + a-b