Lecture Review: Salivary Glands, Respiratory Centers, Acid-Base Balance, and More

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts necessary for review before the upcoming exam, including anatomy, physiology, and pathology related to the salivary glands, respiratory centers, acid-base balance, and urinary systems.

What are the three major salivary glands?

Mandibular, sublingual, and parotid.

What is one important component of saliva in ruminants?

Bicarbonate.

What role does amylase play in some animals?

Helps digest starches.

What is the primary focus regarding the respiratory centers for the exam?

Know how they monitor carbon dioxide and its relationship with hydrogen ions.

Where are the major respiratory centers located?

In the brainstem, primarily the medulla oblongata.

What is the effect of increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood?

It leads to an increase in hydrogen ions, which decreases pH (acidosis).

What happens to blood pH when bicarbonate increases?

Blood pH becomes more alkaline (raises the pH).

List the compensatory mechanisms for acid-base imbalances.

Respiratory and urinary excretion.

What are the two states of acidosis and alkalosis discussed?

Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis and respiratory acidosis/alkalosis.

What does respiratory compensation involve during metabolic acidosis?

Hyperventilation to excrete more carbon dioxide.

How does the body compensate during metabolic alkalosis?

Hypoventilation to retain carbon dioxide.

What is transitional epithelium?

The type of epithelium that lines the urinary tract.

What does the four layers of the stomach consist of?

Tunica serosa, tunica muscularis, tunica submucosa, and tunica mucosa.

What are the functions of the rumen in ruminants?

Microbial fermentation and gas elimination through eructation.

What is a consequence of a UTI as seen in urinalysis?

Presence of white blood cells and possibly blood in urine.

What components are found in pancreatic juice?

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, and lipases.

What is the primary site of chemical digestion?

The small intestine.

The nephron includes which structures?

Renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubes.

What part of the kidney performs filtration?

The glomerulus.

What is Bowman's capsule?

A structure that captures filtrate from the glomerulus.

What does the loop of Henle allow for in terms of urine concentration?

It allows water reabsorption to concentrate urine.

What do aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone do in the nephron?

Regulate sodium and water reabsorption.

What is the role of enteroagastrones?

Regulate gastric and intestinal function.

What are the key enteroagastrones?

Gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK).

What does secretin do?

Stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas and inhibits gastric acid secretion.

Where does the majority of absorption happen in the small intestine?

At the brush border of the intestinal villi.

How are fats absorbed in the intestines?

They form micelles and are absorbed into lymphatic lacteals.

What can cause increased protein in urine?

Damage to glomerulus or inflammation in the urinary tract.

What is the main function of bile?

Aid in the digestion and absorption of fats.

What type of epithelium is found in the renal pelvis to urethra?

Transitional epithelium.

What potentially serious condition is associated with a horse owner finding a horse vomiting?

It can indicate critical illness or gastric rupture.

What physiological concept explains the body's response to increased CO2?

The bicarbonate buffer equation.

How does the nephron's loop of Henle contribute to urine concentration?

Through selective reabsorption of water.

What happens during hyperventilation?

Carbon dioxide levels drop, which helps reduce acidity.

What is rumination?

The process of re-chewing food in ruminants.

What role does the juxtaglomerular apparatus play?

Regulates blood pressure and filtration rate in the kidneys.

What initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?

Low blood pressure detected by the kidneys.

What is the primary function of the glomerular filter?

Filters blood to produce urine.

What is the function of the liver in nutrient metabolism?

Processes nutrients absorbed from the intestine.

What does hyperventilation do to blood pH?

Raises blood pH, leading to respiratory alkalosis.

What mechanisms does the body use to maintain acid-base balance?

Adjusting respiration rates and excreting hydrogen ions through urine.

What effect does vomiting have on serum bicarbonate levels?

It can lead to metabolic alkalosis due to loss of gastric acid.

What causes the differences in gastric structure amongst different species?

Variations in dietary needs and digestion methods.

What organ secretes angiotensinogen?

The liver.

How is glucose reabsorbed in the nephron?

Via active transport in the proximal convoluted tubule.

What color changes in urine may indicate dehydration?

Dark yellow to amber coloration.

What is the role of the renal pelvis?

Collects urine before it moves to the ureters.

What is the purpose of the pyloric sphincter?

Regulates the release of stomach contents into the small intestine.

What does the presence of ketones in urine indicate?

Possible diabetic ketoacidosis or starvation.

What is the significance of a patient's blood pH decrease?

Indicates acidosis, which may require compensation mechanisms.

What are the key functions of the gallbladder?

Stores and concentrates bile for fat digestion.

What does hyperventilation do to carbon dioxide levels?

It decreases carbon dioxide levels in the blood.

How does the kidney respond to low blood volume?

Releases renin to activate the renin-angiotensin system.

What is the primary physiological role of the pancreas in digestion?

Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.

What is characterized as metabolic acidosis?

Low pH due to an excess of hydrogen ions from a metabolic cause.

How can females be more prone to UTIs?

They have a shorter urethra, making ascending infections easier.

What anatomical structures are involved in nutrient absorption in the intestine?

Villi, microvilli, and lacteals.

What happens to urine concentration during dehydration?

Urine becomes more concentrated as reabsorption increases.

What is the significance of the S-shaped turn in the loop of Henle?

Facilitates countercurrent exchange, enhancing concentration gradients.

What is the body's method of compensating for respiratory acidosis?

Increasing renal secretion of hydrogen ions.

What information should you know about the lab practical?

Be familiar with structures covered in the rat dissection and urinary lab.

What is the main function of the kidney's collecting ducts?

Final adjustment of water reabsorption.

What can cause proteinuria in the kidneys?

Injury to the glomerulus causing protein to leak into urine.

Why is bicarbonate considered basic?

It can accept hydrogen ions and raise pH level.

What does the presence of blood in urine signal?

Possible urinary tract infection or injury.

What is the effect of renal failure on hormone balance?

It can disrupt the production of hormones like erythropoietin.

What is the role of carbohydrates in digestive enzyme activity?

They are broken down by enzymes like amylase.

What substance is chiefly responsible for flavoring of saliva?

Amylase, especially in species that digest starch.

What signifies a normal pH in urine?

A pH around 6, indicating balanced acidity.

What is the biomechanical role of the diaphragm?

It assists in breathing by creating negative pressure in the thoracic cavity.

What is the purpose of masticatory muscles?

They are involved in chewing food to aid in digestion.

What are the types of renal blood flow entering and leaving the nephron?

Afferent arterioles bring blood in; efferent arterioles take it out.

What happens when blood glucose levels exceed renal threshold?

Glucose spills into urine, resulting in glucosuria.

How does diet impact the type of epithelium in the stomach?

Different diets necessitate varied glandular vs. non-glandular regions.

What are the symptoms of respiratory alkalosis?

Dizziness, muscle spasms, and tingling sensations due to decreased carbon dioxide.