Psychology 101 Exam 2

Affect Heurestic

A rule of thumb in which we choose between alternatives based on
emotional or "gut" reactions to stimuli.

• Assessment Reports

used to communicate the assessment process, including approach,
tests, and interpretations

• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

involves persistent patterns of inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsivity (Neurodevelopmental Disorders)

• Autism Spectrum Disorders

Characterized by difficulties in social communication and
interaction, along with restricted or repetitive behaviors and sensory sensitivities

• Availability heuristic

A rule of thumb in which the frequency of an event's occurrence
is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind.

• Cognition

Internal mental processes including information processing, thinking,
reasoning, and problem solving.

• Concept

An organizing principle derived from experience.

• Crystallized intelligence

The ability to think logically using specific learned
knowledge.

• Design the Assessment

what information is necessary to answer our question (methods,
sources, settings, tests)

• Dyslexia

a learning disorder that involves difficulty reading due to problems identifying
speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and words

• Exemplar

A specific member of a category used to represent the category.

• Fluid intelligence

The ability to think logically without the need to use learned
knowledge.

• Functional Fixedness

a person's tendency to think about a concept in its most typical
form and not others

• General intelligence (g)

A measure of an individual's overall intelligence as opposed to
specific abilities.

• Giftedness

An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above.

• Heuristic

A shortcut to problem solving also known as a rule of thumb.

• Intellectual disability

A condition diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores below 70 and
poor adaptive behaviors

• Intelligence

The ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the
environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles.

• Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A measure of individual intelligence relative to a statistically
normal curve.

• Knowledge

the entire body of information acquired through study, investigation,
observation, experience

• Language

A system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals.

Lexical Knowledge

the comprehensive understanding and mental storage of words in a
language

• Making sense of the Data

interpretation of the test results to answer the questions

• Problem

A situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state by
obstacles.

• Problem solving

The use of information to meet a specific goal.

• Prototype

A representation of a category formed by averaging all members of the
category.

• Recognition heuristic

A rule of thumb in which a higher value is placed on the more
easily recognized alternative.

• Referral Question

looks at what we are evaluating an individual for (Who, what, why)

• Representativeness heuristic

A rule of thumb in which stimuli similar to a prototype
are believed to be more likely than stimuli that are dissimilar to a prototype.

• Schema

a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

• Specific Learning Disability

disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or using language (spoke or written) that may
manifest in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations

• Utility Theory

suggests we compute expected outcomes of choices and select the best
one. says that people choose the option that gives them the greatest overall benefit or satisfaction.

• Accommodation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema.📌 Example

A child has a schema for “dog”:

Four legs

Fur

Wags tail

👉 The child sees a cat and realizes:

“This is not a dog.”

So they create a new schema for “cat” instead.

• Adolescence

A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young
adulthood.

• Assimilation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the
need to revise the schema.

• Attachment

Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver.

• Autonomy

an individual's freedom to make choices

• Behavioral Regulation

supervision of the child's behavior accompanied by consistent
discipline and clear expectations

• Chromosomal Abnormalities

genetic conditions caused by numerical or structural
changes in a person's chromosomes

• Chronosystem

time dimension including life transitions, historical events, and societal
changes that reshape development across the lifespan

• Cognitive Development

brain changes

• Complex/Multifactorial Conditions

Risk to development that is a combination of multiple genetic factors;.
Examples: Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative, ASD

• Concrete operational stage

Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of
6 years and ending at the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract
reasoning.

• Continuity

development process gradually and smoothly over time

• Conservation

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an
object does not change its quantity.

• Conventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which
moral choices are made according to law or public opinion.

• Discontinuity

changes from one stage to the next are abrupt

• Disorganized Attachment

mix of behaviors that indicate fear or confusion towards
caregiver

• Down Syndrome

child receives a full or partial third copy of the 21st chromone because
of faulty cell division

• Ecological view

psychologists ask questions about the impact of culture and
environment on development

• Ecological Systems Theory

individual's environment is a nested arrangement of
structures, each contained within the next. the influence of one system on an individual’s development
depends on its relationship with the others
○ Microsystem
○ Mesosystem
○ Exosystem
○ Macrosystem
○ chronosystem

• Egocentrism

Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people.

• Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

According to Erik Erikson
(1902-1994), psychosocial development includes 8 stages of personality development →
Social relationships shape our sense of self
o Stage 1 Trust vs. Mistrust

Stage 2: autonomy vs. shame and doubt

o Stage 3: initiative vs. guilt

o Stage 4: industry vs. inferiority

o Stage 5: identity vs. role confusion

o Stage 6: intimacy vs. isolation

o Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation

o Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. despai

• Exosystem

indirect influences the individual doesn't directly experience

• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A condition resulting from alcohol consumption by the
mother during pregnancy that produces physical abnormalities and cognitive and
behavioral problems in her child

Formal operational stage

Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at age 12 and
extending through adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities.

• Identity

A consistent, unified sense of self.

• Identity Development

establishing sense of self

Insecure-avoidant attachment

A pattern characterized by emotional distance,
independence, and minimal visible reliance on caregivers

• Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant

mixed feelings of dependency and anger towards
caregivers characterized by anxiety. Example A baby cries intensely when mom leaves. When she comes back, the baby clings to her but is also angry and resists being held

• Macrosystem

broader cultural context shaping all systems

• Mesosystem

connections between microsystem

• Microsystem

immediate environment and direct relationships

• Mismatch Model

accounts for greater levels of risk-taking and sensation-seeking that
characterizes adolescence compared to childhood and adulthood

• Object permanence

The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no
longer present.

• Parental Support

empathy and recognition of the child's perspective

• Personal Fable

adolescent belief that they are invulnerable to danger

• Physical Development

growth and bodily change

• Postconventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are
made according to personal standards and reason.

• Postformal thought

critical thinking. Difference between adolescent and adult thinking. Recognizes that the “right answer” is often “it
depends” and many questions are complex and
ambiguous

• Preconventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made
according to expectations of reward or punishment.

• Preoperational stage

Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years
and ending at the age of 6 years and characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and
limits on the ability to reason logically.

• Puberty

A period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity.

• Secure attachment

A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding in which children explore
confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance.

• Sensorimotor stage

Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at birth and ending at
the age of 2 years and characterized by active exploration of the environment.

• Single-gene disorders

inherited diseases caused by a mutation in one specific gene,
resulting in abnormal protein function or structure

Social/emotional Development

learning how to express, understand, control feelings,
develop relationships and social skills

• Teratogen

A chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus.

• Theory of mind (TOM)

The understanding that others have thoughts that are different
from one's own.

• Universal view

psychologists look for age related behaviors that are found across the
entire human species

• Agreeableness

A Big Five personality trait characterized by trustworthiness, altruism,
trust, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness.

• Big Five theory

A trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for
most individual differences in personality.

• Central Trait

characteristics that clearly define and differentiate a person (how you
describe someone)

• Conscientiousness

A Big Five personality trait characterized by competence, order,
dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation.

• Defense mechanism

In Sigmund Freud's personality theory, a protective behavior that
reduces anxiety.

• Ego

The component of Sigmund Freud's personality theory that is the self that others
see.

• Extroversion

One of the Big Five traits characterized by warmth, gregariousness,
assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion

• Id

The component of Sigmund Freud's personality theory containing primitive drives
present at birth.

Interpersonal self

The self we are in the presence of other people.

• Introversion

One of the Big Five traits characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity,
inactivity, caution, and negative emotion

• Locus of control

A cognitive expectancy featured in social-cognitive learning theories
of personality about the source of individual outcomes
o an external locus of control sees outcomes as resulting from luck or chance,
while an
o internal locus of control sees outcomes as the result of individual effort.

• Neo-Freudian

A theorist who attempted to update and modify Sigmund Freud's original
theory of personality.

• Neuroticism

A Big Five personality trait characterized by anxiety, angry hostility,
depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity, and vulnerability.

• Openness

A Big Five personality trait characterized by an appreciation for fantasy,
feelings, actions, ideas, values, and aesthetics.

• Personality

our characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving

• Personality inventory

An objective test, often using numbered scales or multiple
choice, used to assess personality. Examples include Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Likert Scales, Projective Tests,

• Projective test

A test of personality based on Freudian theory that provides an
ambiguous stimulus onto which test takers "project" their personality.

• Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's treatment approach based on his psychodynamic
theory.

• Psychodynamic

A theory put forward by Sigmund Freud in which psychic energy
moves among the compartments of the personality

• Psychosexual stage

A stage in Sigmund Freud's theory of the developing personality.