PSM114 - 5

Natural Selection

The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to future generations

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Epigenetics

A field of research that explores how gene expression changes across different environments

Cultural Diversity

The variety of languages, customs, and expressive behaviors that show much of human behavior is socially programmed rather than biologically hardwired

Norms

Standards for accepted and expected behavior that prescribe proper behavior and also describe what most people do

Learning Cultural Norms

Best understood by comparing one’s native culture with other cultures and observing differences in behavior

Expected Behavior

Behaviors shaped by cultural norms and social expectations within a group

Cultural Similarities

Universal patterns such as friendship norms, trait dimensions, social belief systems, status norms, and the incest taboo shared across cultures

Cultural Variations

Differences across cultures in individual choices, expressiveness, punctuality, rule-breaking, and personal space

Gender

The characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

Sex Differences Overlap

The idea that similarities between males and females are generally greater than their differences

Female Biological Characteristics

Compared to males, females generally have more body fat, less muscle, are shorter and lighter, and are more sensitive to smells and sounds and more prone to anxiety and depression

Independence vs Connectedness

Differences in how males and females relate socially through play, friendships, vocations, family relations, and emotional expression

Empathy

The vicarious experience of another’s feelings or the ability to put oneself in another’s shoes

Social Dominance

The tendency for men to be perceived as more dominant, aggressive, and driven across cultures

Leadership Traits

Leaders are often perceived as having culturally masculine traits such as confidence, independence, and assertiveness

Leadership Differences

Men tend to be directive and task-focused leaders while women tend to be transformational and relational leaders

Masculinity Norms

Cultural expectations that masculinity must be earned and defended

Risk Behavior

Men are generally more impulsive and take more risks than women

Language Differences

Men use more complex language while women use more social words and pronouns

Aggression Differences

Men exhibit more physical aggression while women are more likely to engage in indirect aggression such as gossip

Sexual Behavior Differences

Men generally show stronger sexual desire, think about sex more frequently, yield more to temptation, and masturbate more often than women

Gender and Mating Preferences

Evolutionary psychology predicts no sex differences in areas where both sexes faced similar adaptive challenges but predicts differences in behaviors related to mating and reproduction

Natural Selection and Gender

Nature selects traits that help pass genes into the future and human desires reflect genetic strategies for reproduction

Human Attraction Strategies

Women may enhance physical appearance to signal youth and fertility while both men and women value kindness, love, and mutual attraction

Reflections on Evolutionary Psychology

Critics argue that evolutionary psychologists sometimes start with observed differences and then create explanations which may not always be scientifically rigorous

Estrogen

The female sex hormone that influences feminine appearance and traits and is associated with changes in assertiveness across life stages

Testosterone

The male sex hormone that influences masculine appearance and traits and affects behavior such as reduced empathy and increased typical male patterns when exposure occurs early

Hormonal Influence on Behavior

Hormones shape psychological traits such as assertiveness, empathy, and communication differences between sexes

Androgynous

A combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics in one individual

Culture Cycle

The process where cultures evolve over time as people create cultures and then adapt to them while those cultures shape behavior that sustains them

Gender Role

A set of expected behaviors or norms for males and females within a society

Gender Roles Across Cultures

Gender roles vary across cultures but many people prefer more equal roles between males and females

Gender Roles Over Time

Gender roles have changed significantly over recent history reflecting cultural evolution

Peer-Transmitted Culture

The idea that peers strongly influence behavior and values especially during childhood and adolescence

Nurture Assumption

The belief that parental upbringing determines a child’s development and personality

Peer Influence

The strong effect of friends and social groups on behavior often outweighing parental influence

Culture and Biology Interaction

All social and psychological processes are rooted in biology but are shaped and amplified by culture

Biological Predisposition

Genes and hormones predispose males to be more physically aggressive than females

Cultural Amplification

Cultural norms reinforce biological differences such as expecting males to be tough and females to be gentle

Situation and Person Interaction

Behavior is influenced by both the individual and the social situation they are in

Perception of Reality

People respond to situations based on their interpretation rather than objective reality

Situational Choice

People often choose environments that match their personality such as sociable individuals choosing social settings

Situational Creation

People can create situations through their expectations and behaviors which can influence others to act in expected ways