Muslims In America - Final study Guide

Reasons for targeting Black "nationalist-hate groups”

• COINTRLPRO directive: to expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize and to counter their propensity for violence and civil disorder.

• Movements headed by Black leaders such as MLK, Malcom X, Stokely Carmichael and Elijah Muhammad represented a threat of the possibility of developing a movement that can challenged and possibly change the American power structure.

• Reasons for targeting these groups:

  • Preventing the coalition of militant Black nationalist groups

  • Preventing the rise of a Messiah - who could unify, end electrify the militant black nationalist movements (Malcom X had this potential)

  • Preventing Violence on the part of the Black nationalist groups

  • Preventing the long term growth and militant Black nationalist organizations

Groups targeted by the FBI in the 1960s

• The Black Panther Movement - Malcom X

• The Nation of Islam - Elijah Muhmmad

• The Student nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC) - Stokely Chimerical

• The Southern Christian Leadership Committee (SCLC) - MLK

• The Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM) - Maxwell Stanford

• American Indian Movement (AIM)

• Pro-Palestine organization

• KKK (for different reasons)

• Public figures that supported these orgnaizations: Jean Seberg and John Lennon

Tools used by COINTELPRO

• Infiltration - the use of informants and undercover agents to penetrate target organizations

• Psychological Warfare - tactics used to sow discord, fear and damage reputation - included efforts aimed at enhancing paranoia within targeted groups (who is informing and distrust among group members)

• Harassment through the legal system - using legal systems to impede and discredit these organizations by levying false charges against those targeted and manufacturing evidence to obtain convictions and withholdings evidence that might exonerate them - meant to stop all activities of group right away

• Extralegal Force and violence - tactics that included the assassination of key leaders - Malcom X and Fred Hampton

Church Commission

• US senate investigation that uncovered the widespread illegal and improper actives by the US intelligence agencies - including spying on American citizens, assassinating foreign leaders and disrupting civil rights groups

• Reviewed the activities of the Bureau - found that FBI director J. E. Hoover requested 3247 illegal actions of which 2370 were carried out

• The commissions function was viewed by some as merely a process of consolidation designed to satisfy disillusioned public that the system was criticizing and correcting itself.

Push (from countries) and Pull (to US) factors for Muslim immigration to America

• Push Factors (political and economic instability)

  • Political Repression and Instability

  • War and Displacement - generated huge populations of refugees and immigrants

  • Economic and Instability and Poverty

• Pull Factors

  • Economic Opportunity - seeking a better future

  • Employment and Professional Skills: post WWII immigration policies were changed to bring doctors, scientist, engineers and other sought after professional skill - Work Visa (H1B Visa) and Industry Recruitment

  • Education - attracts students and academics that stay here

  • Family connection and reunifications

  • Asylum and refugee status

First and Second wave of Immigration

• First Wave:

  • The majority of immigrants came from Greater Syria, a region that was part of the Ottoman Empire, approximately 95,000 immigrants from Greater Syria entered the U.S. during the broader period of mass migration (1880–1924). The majority of Arabs who arrived during this first wave were Lebanese and Syrian Christians.

  • Push Factors: This migration was driven by "Political repression, economic instability, and war" under the Ottoman Empire

  • Settlement and Work: Many settled in industrial cities such as New York, Boston, and Detroit, finding employment in the textile, peddling, and automotive industries. Others worked as peddlers, selling goods door-to-door across the country

  • Muslim Arab Americans during this time also established some of the first mosques in the country in North Dakota, Michigan, and Iowa

• Second Wave

  • First and Second wave over lap

  • Context: This wave took place during the decline and "disintegration of the Ottoman Empire". It saw an acceleration of immigration before World War I.

  • Immigrant Profile: Some Muslim immigrants, particularly from various areas in Russia, arrived before and after the 1917 Communist Revolution. There were also a small number of Yemeni men in the U.S. by 1890, some of whom served in the American military during World War I

Immigration Act of 1917 (Literacy Act)

• Literacy Requirement: It required immigrants to be able to write or speak English and another language - highly exclusionary

• Targeted Groups: This literacy requirement was principally intended to exclude immigrants from southern Europe and Jewish immigrants. However, it also resulted in the exclusion of all Asians, including Indians, Malaysians, etc.

• Exception for Farm Workers: The Act contained the 9th Proviso, which provided an exception for farm workers, mostly Mexicans

• The Immigration Act of 1917 was part of a broader trend of limiting U.S. immigration, which was often accompanied by anti-immigrant and xenophobic campaigns

Johnson Reed Act of 1924

• U.S. legislation that severely restricted immigration and implemented a highly discriminatory quota system

• Severely Limited Immigration: The law drastically reduced the flow of immigrants into the United States. It specifically caused immigration from the Arab world to drop to "about 1,000 people or fewer a year" for four decades

• Establishment of Numerical Quotas: This law was the first legislation to establish numerical limits (quotas) on immigration

• Discriminatory System: The quota system favored immigrants from northern and western Europe while severely restricting those from other parts of the world. It limited immigrants to 2% of their national group residing in the U.S. according to the 1890 Census. This metric was explicitly against southern and eastern Europeans, Latin Americans, Asians, and Africans

• Impact on Asian Immigration: The Johnson-Reed Act was part of a sequence of restrictive laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, that resulted in limiting "most if not all Asian immigration to the US"

• Effect on Jewish Immigration: This restrictive policy coincided with the end of the major wave of immigration by Eastern European Jews, a period during which over 2 million Jews from various European countries had come to America between 1880 and 1924

Henry Ford and Yemeni Workers

• Notably, in the early 1900s, Henry Ford began recruiting Yemeni workers to work at Ford’s factories

• Ford was fascinated with the Yemeni workers, referring to them as "one of the main pillars of his achievements," which helped the Yemeni American community grow

Third Wave of Muslim Immigration to America

• The third wave of Muslim immigration to the United States occurred roughly from 1930 to 1938. This period was defined by a drastic reduction in the number of immigrants allowed into the country due to restrictive federal policies

• The third wave of Muslim immigration to the United States occurred roughly from 1930 to 1938. This period was defined by a drastic reduction in the number of immigrants allowed into the country due to restrictive federal policies

• Asians: Immigration for most Asian groups was also limited during this period due to the existing restrictions, including the effects of the Chinese Exclusionary Act

• Palestinians: A smaller segment of Palestinians left their homeland and arrived in the U.S. during this time, driven by the intensification of British oppression during the 1936–39 revolt

• In summary, the third wave is unique not for its volume, but for the effective closure of the immigration door to Arabs and Muslims due to the quota system put in place by the Johnson-Reed Act

McCarran-Walter Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952

• The McCarran-Walter Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 was a significant piece of legislation passed during the early Cold War era, primarily directed against "communist subversives"

• The context surrounding the Act included a McCarthyism scare, which contributed to the slowing of European immigration during the early 1950s

• The context surrounding the Act included a McCarthyism scare, which contributed to the slowing of European immigration during the early 1950s

• Preference System: The Act established a four-category preference system for immigrants.

  ◦ Fifty percent of the slots were allocated to the more educated.

  ◦ The other fifty percent were reserved for three categories based on the family of citizens and residents. This marked the first time that preferences based on family connections were established in immigration law

Fourth wave of Muslim immigration to America

• The fourth wave of Muslim immigration to the United States occurred roughly from 1945 to 1964, in the period immediately following World War II

• The fourth wave of Muslim immigration to the United States occurred roughly from 1945 to 1964, in the period immediately following World War II

• Policy Shift for Professionals: The U.S. changed its immigration policy to specifically attract and admit "doctors, scientists, engineers and other people with sought-after professional skills" who wished to immigrate to the United States

• Immigrant Profile (Brain Drain): As a result of this policy change, many educated people began arriving from countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Pakistan, Malaysia, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq. This migration of highly skilled individuals is referred to as the beginning of a phenomenon known as the "brain drain"

• Refugee Admissions: The U.S. formally admitted refugees during this period.

  ◦ The Refugee Relief Act in 1953 allowed 2,000 Palestinian families to immigrate to the United States.

  ◦ The U.S. subsequently accepted another 985 Palestinian families in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

  ◦ Refugees also arrived from areas that fell under Soviet Union control.

Hart-Celler Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

• Hart-Celler Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 fundamentally reshaped U.S. immigration policy, marking a major departure from earlier discriminatory systems.

• Elimination of Discriminatory Quotas: The Act "eliminated the discriminatory quota system from 1924," which had previously favored immigrants from northern and western Europe, while severely restricting those from the Arab world and other regions. This old quota system, established by the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924, had drastically reduced Arab immigration to about 1,000 people or fewer a year for four decades

• Increased Immigration from Muslim and Arab Countries: By abolishing the national quotas, the Act allowed "many more people from outside northern and western Europe to immigrate to the country". This resulted in "an increase in immigration to the United States from all over the world, including Muslim and Arab countries".

• Preference for Skilled Professionals and Family Unification: The legislation introduced new standards for immigration selection that favored the "occupational elite".

  ◦ This led to a large segment of the new immigrants being "Students and Professional".

  ◦ Specific preferences were drawn on highly skilled individuals in fields like "medicine, engineering and other technical fields".

  ◦ The Act also facilitated Family Unification and connections.

• Educational Outcomes: The Act brought new waves of Muslims from Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, including highly educated professionals and students, who began establishing Islamic centers and organizations. This led to the development of weekend schools in mosques and the appearance of early full-time Islamic day schools in major metropolitan areas

Fifth wave of Muslim immigration to America

• The fifth wave of Muslim immigration to the United States occurred roughly between 1964 and 1990

• The primary driver of this wave was the Hart-Celler Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

• Eliminated Discriminatory Quotas: It "eliminated the discriminatory quota system from 1924," which had previously restricted immigration from the Arab world to approximately 1,000 people or fewer per year

• Increased Global Immigration: The Act allowed "many more people from outside northern and western Europe to immigrate to the country," resulting in a general increase in immigration, including from Muslim and Arab countries.

• Religious Education: Weekend schools in mosques developed to teach the Qur'an, Arabic, and Islamic ethics. This era also saw early attempts at establishing full-time Islamic day schools in major metropolitan areas.

• Campus Life: The Muslim Students Association of the U.S. and Canada (MSA National), founded in 1963, created spaces on university campuses for prayer, study circles, and Islamic awareness. MSA alumni later helped found subsequent organizations

Sixth Wave of Muslim Immigration to America

• The sixth wave of Muslim immigration to the United States began around 1990 and continues to the present

• U.S. Intervention and Conflict: This wave is strongly linked to U.S. intervention in the Arab and Muslim world. These interventions and conflicts have resulted in large numbers of refugees seeking safety in the U.S. from across the Muslim world

• Economic Factors (IT/Silicon Rush): The demand for skilled labor, particularly in the IT industry or the "Silicon Rush," has been a significant "pull" factor. This is likely tied to mechanisms such as the H1B Visa for technical employees.

• The ongoing period of this immigration wave is characterized by Islamophobia and surveillance directed at Muslim, Arab, and South Asian communities, often treating them as a "singular criminalized class

Significance of Muslim Students Association

• The Muslim Students Association of the U.S. and Canada (MSA National), founded in 1963

• The MSA was instrumental in providing foundational support for the growing community of young Muslims, particularly during the fifth wave of immigration, which brought new populations of Muslims from Asia, the Middle East, and Africa following the 1965 Immigration Reform

• Establishing Campus Infrastructure: The MSA "created spaces for prayer, study circles, and Islamic awareness on university campuses"

• Shaping Intellectual Life: It "organized lectures, publications, and conferences that shaped the intellectual life of young Muslims"

• Fostering Community Development: By providing religious life and support services, the MSAs and Muslim chaplaincy programs expanded at public and private universities across the country

• Incubating Future Organizations: The alumni of the MSA later "helped found subsequent organizations such as ISNA and professional networks"

• Essentially, the MSA played a critical role in the institutionalization of the Muslim American community by serving as a launchpad for religious and social infrastructure in higher education and beyond

Virtual internment

• Virtual Internment describes a system of quasi-visible repression, intimidation, and confinement used by the U.S. government and its domestic and foreign allies globally. This structure is directed against individuals, communities, and organizations that are perceived as unsupportive or possibly hostile toward America's elite-defined "global" interests

• The main purpose of Virtual Internment is to solicit the cooperation and collaboration of the targeted communities against their own collective self-interest - or pressure placed on certain communities without physically imprisoning them) is designed to get the people being targeted to go along with, participate in, or even help enforce the systems that harm them by":

  • Collective Guilt and Guilt by Association: This system operates by assigning blame to entire groups for the actions of a few

  • The "Good Muslim-Bad Muslim" Binary: This tactic is deployed to welcome "Good" Muslims into civil society, but only if they commit to identifying and distancing themselves from "bad" Muslims, who are defined as those who oppose interventionist and violent policies directed at Muslim-majority states

  • Encouraging Self-Policing: The campaign uses slogans like "See something, say something!" to encourage partnership in the "war on terror" and enforce community self-policing

Bay Area Community Study

• External Challenges: A major external challenge is Islamophobia, with 60 percent of respondents knowing someone who had been discriminated against, and 40 percent reporting they had experienced personal discrimination. Other challenges include being targets of negative media portrayals and facing pressure to respond to conflicts in Muslim-majority countries. Many members felt excluded from the broader social fabric (feeling like "Double Minorities")

• Internal Challenges: Internal issues included a lack of broad vision and planning among institutions, reliance on volunteers leading to limited professional staff, and regional socioeconomic disparities causing tension between affluent and struggling segments of the community. Challenges specific to women, such as the lack of mosque space and representation in leadership, were also noted

• A significant strength identified was the resilience and activism of the community. Their deeply held faith fosters community building and cohesion, reflected by a high level of religiosity and volunteerism. Furthermore, the diversity, high education levels, and strong civic engagement were identified as key assets to be leveraged

Muhammad Ali’s global approach to racial justice

• Used his global platform to connect the struggle for civil rights in America with transnational liberation and anti-colonial movements across the world

• His actions and words provided a window through which people around the world were able to see America’s racism and contradictions, as well as the continued colonial imprint on the globe.

• Challenging the War's Racial Basis: He connected his opposition to the draft with the racism he experienced at home, questioning why he should travel 10,000 miles to "drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights"

• He was a very powerful voice for those oppressed globally

Parallels btw Black Muslims and immigrant Muslim experience

• Shared target of State Surveillance and Criminalization

  • Targeting by COINTELPRO

  • Racialized policing

• Socioeconomic Marginalization and internal inequality

  • Low income status

  • legacy of colonialism and racism

• Institutional Development and Resistance

  • Both groups were essential in building the foundation of Muslim institutions and education in the United States

Responses to Derek Chauvin’s murder of George Floyd

• nitial Police Action: Initially, the Minneapolis Police Department fired the four officers involved without immediately charging any of them with a crime.

  • Public Pressure and Charges: It took "five full days of a national rebellion" and thousands of people protesting before the Hennepin County attorney announced murder and manslaughter charges against Derek Chauvin, the officer seen pinning Floyd to the ground. The other three officers were not arrested or charged until June 3, after the appointment of Minnesota Attorney General Keith Ellison to prosecute the case

• Shift in Demands: As police departments responded to protests with brutality, the initial demands for charging the four officers rapidly shifted to addressing "systemic and institutional racism" itself

• Domestic Uprising: Floyd’s murder triggered a "national rebellion" with protests across more than forty U.S. cities, prompting a response from police departments across the country - followed by global solidarity

• Iconoclasm and Historical Revision: A significant response was the "iconoclastic global moment" that saw protesters tearing down, and at times sinking, statutes across the U.S. and the world that symbolized colonizers, slave traders, and Confederate figures. Activists sought to reclaim public space for social justice movements and rewrite history in real time

• The collective response led to calls to "disband, abolish, and defund the police" and to bring about fundamental change

What is orientalism?

• How the West perceives the Middle East, Asia and North Africa - Reinforcing colonial attitudes and Western “superiority” over the East. - Seeing the West as civilized while the East is monolithic, exotic backwards and unchanging 

Manifestations of Orientalism

• Middle Eastern countries don’t/can’t have a civilized culture - depicted as exotic/barbaric 

• All Middle Eastern and Asian cultures are one - having the same culture/belief system

• Muslims are the enemy of the US (what the US stands for) as they are preparators of violence and sexual promiscuity unlike the united states. 

Orientalism - Effects of Academia

• While many orientalist views still dominate academic, they have begun to make away from the use of orientalist language 

• The publication of Orientalism led to reflection on the colonial roots of this academic field and name changed from orientalism studies to Islamic studies along with other middle eastern and Asian studies - But content has not changed much