AP Psychology: Unit 4

association learning

when an individual connects things together based on the order of which they were experienced

observational learning

when an individual learns by observing someone else

latent learning

when an individual is exposed to information but doesn’t show evidence of learning it unless an instance in the future arises during which they need to display that skill

social learning

learning through social interaction

insight learning

when an individual mentally works through the details of a problem to arrive at a solution

trial-and-error learning

when an individual tries different solutions at random until they’re successful

accidental reinforcement

when someone falsely links an action with a positive effect; can cause superstitious behavior within an individual

John Garcia

researched association and believed that some associations are more available than others; researched taste aversion

taste aversion

when an individual has a negative association with a food/taste due to a bad experience with it in the past

Albert Bandura

researched observational learning and conducted an experiment with Bobo dolls

Edward Tolman

researched latent learning and conducted an experiment with rats

Edward Thorndike

researched trial-and-error learning

Robert Rescorla

researched the relationship between cognition and learning by showing how animals can be taught to expect a certain outcome

Law of Effect

suggests that a certain behavior is more likely to occur if it’s constantly followed by favorable consequences

shaping

helps reinforce desired behaviors by increasing a targeted behavior through reinforcement in a process of successive approximation

positive reinforcement

when a desirable stimulus is added and has the result of promoting a desirable behavior

negative reinforcement

when an undesirable stimulus is removed and has the result of promoting a desirable behavior

positive punishment

when an undesirable stimulus is added and has the result of discouraging an undesirable behavior

negative punishment

when a desirable stimulus is removed and has the result of discouraging an undesirable behavior

fixed ratio

when a reinforcement is given after a set number of responses

fixed interval

when reinforcement is given after a set amount of time

variable ratio

when a reinforcement is given after a random number of responses

variable interval

when a reinforcement is given after a random amount of time

extrinsic motivation

when an individual is motivated to perform a behavior due to an external reward or to avoid punishment

intrinsic motivation

when an individual is motivated to perform a behavior for their own sake, therefore meaning that there isn’t an external punishment or any sort of reward

overjustification effect

occurs when rewards end up decreasing motivation

biological factors

when an individual’s genetic predispositions affect their learning

psychological factors

when an individual’s past experiences affect their learning

sociocultural factors

when an individual’s culture or family affects their learning

preparedness

when an individual makes certain associations between items that will help with survival

instinctive drift

when a conditioned animal slightly changes their conditioning to more of a natural behavior for its species

cognitive map

mental layout of an environment

external locus of control

the belief that external forces (e.g. luck, fate, or God) affect success

internal locus of control

the belief that one’s own actions determine their success

problem-focused coping

when an individual attempts to reduce stress by focusing on the stressor itself

emotion-focused coping

when an individual attempts to reduce stress by focusing on how the stressor makes them feel