AP COGO - All Key Terms

Empirical Statement

Fact-based information derived from observation or experimentation.

Normative Statement

A value or opinion-based statement.

Quantitative Data

Information based on numerical values.

Qualitative Data

Information that is difficult to measure, including sources such as speeches, foundational documents, and maps.

Correlation

An association between two or more variables.

Causation

A relationship where one variable causes a change in another.

Hypothesis

A speculative statement about two or more facts.

Variables

Measurable traits that change over time.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A summary measure of average achievement in life expectancy, amount of schooling, and income.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The market value of goods and services produced in a country over time, depicting the overall size of a national economy.

Gini Index

Measures income inequality within a country.

Freedom House Scores

Ranks countries as free, partially free, or not free based on political rights and civil liberties (100 is best).

Fragile States Index

Ranks countries based on their potential to weaken (the lower the better).

Sovereignty

The power to govern without outside interference.

State

Countries that control what happens within their territory and to their people.

Regime

Fundamental rules that endure beyond individual leaders and governments, controlling access to power.

Government

Set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for the state.

Nation

A group of people bonded by a common political identity (e.g., race, language, religion, ethnicity).

Democratic Regimes

Based on the will of the people, endorsing civil rights, transparency, and free and fair elections.

Authoritarian Regimes

Decisions made by an elite without significant input from citizens.

Civil Liberties

Protection against abuse of power by the government.

Civil Rights

Protection from discrimination by the government.

Transparency

The ability of citizens to access information and hold government officials accountable.

Illiberal Democracy

Elections with little competition favoring the ruling party.

Theocracy

Rule by religious leaders.

Corporatism

Government-created and supported interest groups.

Pluralism

Multiple competing interest groups influencing policy.

Democratic Consolidation

When citizens and elites commit to a mature democracy.

Coup

A forcible takeover of the government by elites.

Power

The ability to make someone do something.

Authority

The recognized right to exercise power.

Devolution

Division of power shared from the national to sub-regional units without constitutional protection.

Federal System

The division of shared powers between the central government and regional subunits.

Unitary System

Power concentrated at the national level, leading to uniform policies and efficient policymaking.

Political Legitimacy

Citizens' recognition of the government's right to rule.

Rational-Legal Legitimacy

Based on well-established rules and laws.

Traditional Legitimacy

Based on established customs and historical precedent.

Charismatic Legitimacy

Based on the personal appeal of a leader.

Coercion

Use of force to guide citizen behavior and actions.

Political Stability

Confidence in the institutions of the state.

Rule of Law

Principle that a state should be governed by law, not arbitrary decisions by government officials.

Gender Quotas

Party rules intended to increase female representation in legislatures.

Democratization

The transition from an authoritarian to a democratic regime through political liberalization.

Legislative Branch

Part of the government that makes, creates, passes, and crafts laws.

Judicial Branch

Part of the government that interprets and decides the meaning of laws.

Executive Branch

Part of the government that enforces, executes, and carries out the laws.

Parliamentary System

A system where the national legislature combines lawmaking and executive functions, with the power to select and remove the Prime Minister.

Head of State

The executive leader representing a nation in ceremonial functions and potentially shaping foreign policy.

Head of Government

The executive leader responsible for formulating, implementing, and enforcing policies through the cabinet and various agencies.

Presidential System

A system where separate election processes are used to select the president and the national legislature.

Rule by Law

Governance based on arbitrary decisions made by individual government officials.

Impeachment

A method in presidential systems for the legislature to remove the president and other executive officials.

Executive Term Limit

Institutional constraints on the length of time a head of state or government can serve in office.

Executive Bureaucracy

The system of governmental agencies responsible for implementing executive regulations and laws written by the legislature.

Vote of No Confidence

A parliamentary mechanism for the legislature to remove the Prime Minister as head of government.

Civil Service

Permanent members of bureaucratic agencies who implement laws and governmental regulations.

Unicameral Legislature

A legislative structure consisting of one chamber of representatives.

Commander-in-Chief

The top government official in charge of military decisions.

Executive Cabinet

Top government officials responsible for formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through various methods and bureaus.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislative structure consisting of two chambers (an upper and a lower chamber).

Question Time

A feature of the UK parliament allowing the opposition party to verbally challenge the majority party in governance and policy making.

Censure

An official rebuke of a government official.

Prime Minister

The leader of the national legislature who also serves as the head of government.

Judicial Review

The power of the judiciary to overturn decisions made by the legislature and/or executive.

Judicial Restraint

The principle that courts should defer to decisions made by the legislative and executive branches unless there is a clear violation of the constitution.

Parliamentary Hybrid

A term describing Russia's semi-presidential system where a directly elected president appoints the prime minister.

Semi-Presidential System

A system where both a directly elected president and a prime minister share executive powers.

Fusion of Powers

A system where executive and legislative powers are combined, often seen in parliamentary systems.

Fixed-Term Election System

A system where elections occur at regular, predictable intervals.

Presidential Systems

Presidential systems separate executive and legislative functions.

Parliamentary systems

Parliamentary systems integrate executive and legislative functions.

Unicameral Legislatures

Unicameral systems have a single legislative chamber.

Bicameral Legislatures

Bicameral systems divide legislative responsibilities between two chambers.

Rule of Law

Rule of law emphasizes fairness and consistency.

Rule by Law

Rule by law implies arbitrary governance.

Civil Society

Voluntary associations independent from the state, including local religious and neighborhood organizations, news media, business and professional associations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

Nongovernmental organizations

Civil society groups that provide services governments can also provide such as volunteer fire departments to groups that provide advocacy for foster children.

Political culture

The collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system.

Consensual political culture

Accepts both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems.

Conflictual political culture

Citizens are sharply divided on the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems.

Political socialization

The lifelong process of acquiring one's beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system.

Political ideology

A set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, or politics.

Individualism

Belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions.

Liberalism

Belief committed to individual freedom and free markets.

Neoliberalism

Referring to the removal of barriers and restrictions on what internal/external economic actors can do; beliefs in limited governmental intervention in the economy; privatization of government controlled industries, free trade to lower tariffs on imported goods, deregulation of governmental controls on business, and the elimination of state subsidies for industries.

Communism

Belief in the abolition of private property with near total governmental control of the economy.

Socialism

Belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries.

Fascism

Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition.

Populism

Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elites.

Post-materialism

Social values of self-expression and quality of life issues such as environmental issues and social and economic equality.

Welfare states

A government that takes responsibility for providing key social services such as healthcare, education, housing and retirement benefits.

Political participation

Ways citizens can attempt to shape government policy.

Formal political participation

Government controlled methods of individuals voicing political opinions that are regulated by set laws such as casting a ballot in a government election.

Informal political participation

Voluntary individual actions intended to shape governmental policies with less regulation by the government such as protests and political criticism expressed through social media.

Referendums

Allow citizens to vote directly on policy questions as exemplified by the United Kingdom's 2016 national vote about whether citizens preferred leaving or remaining in the European Union.

Power

Ability of the state to influence the conduct of individuals and organizations within the state.

Authority

State's legitimate right to enforce a power.

Civil Rights

Is the protection of groups of citizens from discrimination by the government or other individuals.

Political Rights

Is the protection of citizens' ability to run for office in free, fair and competitive elections.

Civil Liberties

Is an individual's protection against abuse of powers by the government.