hsc final

On average we're made aware of bladder contractions when the bladder is full and contains how many milliliters of urine? What is the absolute bladder capacity? Most individuals void in what kind of an hourly cycle (during waking hours)?

Full bladder: 200ml

Absolute: 400-600ml

Cycle: every 4 hours

What is the rate which urine is formed in the bladder? (how many ml per min)

1ml/min

Most of the urinary bladder is composed of what kind of muscle? How does these muscles interact with each other (what kind of synapses does this muscle have (synaptic junctions?)

Muscle: unitary single-unit smooth muscle or detrusor muscle

Synapse: electrical synapses, gap junctions

Know the many functions of the kidney (what it does and what it does not do). Remember that the kidney is a major controlling and regulating organ. (main 4 but there is 9)

*-promotes urethropoethisis*
-Excretion of metabolic waste,
-excretion of foreign chemicals,
-regulations of water,
*-maintains fluid volume*
-electrolytes,
-fluid osmolarity,
-arterial pressure,
*-acid-base balance*
*-secretion, metabolism, and excretion of hormones*

The kidney is an encapsulated organ that consists of one million substructures. What were these structures called?

Nephrons

How does the kidney(s) get their supply of blood? How much of the total cardiac output does the kidney process at any given point in time?

Supply: renal arteries
Output: 20%, 1/5 , 1.2 liters (per min)

Know about the functions of the renal pelvis and renal calyx.

Fluid collects in kidney and, flows through calyx to renal pelvis. Renal pelvis connects to all the different calyxes. From there, the fluid flows to the Ureter and to the bladder.

Where is the angiotensin-converting enzyme found? What does it convert? What does the final product of this conversion do?

Found: Lungs

Convert: Angiotensin I - Angiotensin II

Do: Acts on the adrenal cortex causing the release of aldosterone, constricts blood vessels, activates the release of ADH

Does being weightless in space pose a problem for emptying the bladder? (not a yes/no ?)

No, gravity is not important for the movement of urine into the bladder

The bladder stores urine until it is time for micturition

Know structures of the kidney that are found in the renal cortex and those that are found in the medulla.

Cortex: bowman's capsule, glomerulus, proximal/distal convoluted tubules

Medulla: ascending/descending loops of henly and collecting ducts

Urinary incontinence (the inability to withhold urination at the age of two years) is best explained by what kinds of factors?

Pudendal nerve that innervates the external sphincter is not fully developed

Developmental issue

The initial process that occurs in the system of nephrons, the first process that occurs in the kidneys is what? This process requires what in terms of blood pressure?

Process: plasma filtration

Pressure: Blood pressure is needed to filter fluid in the glomerulus (130ml/min filtration) (force)

The afferent arterial directly supplies what part of the nephron system?

Glomerulus in bowman's capsule with blood

Following filtration, where does the urinary filtrate go? What is the next compartment after the bowman's capsule?

Proximal convoluted tubule (resorption)

What is the upper limit of the transport mechanism that moves glucose out of the tubules and back into circulation? What is the plasma concentration threshold in which glucose will begin to appear in the urine?

Upper limit: 375 mg/min
Threshold: 200mg/100ml

Renal Filtration is more likely to remove certain kinds of molecules and not others with respect to positively or negatively charged proteins, which ones? Or small vs. large? (which ones are more (likely to be removed.. small v. large, + v. -)

Filters small, positive molecules

Know which substances are likely to be moved into the proximal convoluted tubules for eventual elimination (toxins, poisons, and things we do not want to keep).

Protons, *bile salt*, oxalate, *uric acid, catecholamines* (NE, E, DA), *poison, some antibiotics*

In terms of ADH, what does a blood volume increase of 10-15% do to ADH, and what are the effect of this on ADH?

Do: Inhibits ADH production and secretion

Effect: Water will not be retained in collecting ducts or distal convoluted tubule

Rember how the renal portal system was defined.

Glomerular capillaries combined with peritubular capillaries

What kinds of things/substances do not get filtered from the blood. Renal filtration removes everything but...

Proteins and red blood cells

Fluid regulation in the kidney ultimately occurs at what part of the nephron system? At these locations, it is controlled by what?

-Late distal tubule
-controlled by hormones

Review juxtaglomerular apparatus with respect to the macula densa cells and granular cells and their relationship to renin.

Granular cells secrete renin in response to low blood pressure

If the sodium content in the distal convoluted tuble declines (low blood pressure), macula densa cells will detect this and will signal to the granular cells to secrete renin

What is the real purpose/function of the ascending and descending loops on Henle? What is the most important thing that they do? What do they trap?

Purpose: Water regulation (osmosis), provide a diffusion gradient

Do: Loops of Henle/Vasa Recta work as a system to put sodium in the tissue of the kidney and remove water

Trap: Sodium

As the descending loop of Henley continues to descend, what moves out of this loop? (what effluxes outward). What kind of movement is strictly inhibited.

Efflux: Water

Movement: Sodium efflux is prohibited

Starting at the bottom of the ascending loop of Henley, what begins to move out (effluxes) out of this ascending loop, and what is then strictly prohibited from moving?

Efflux: Sodium (Na+)

Movement: Water efflux is prohibited

With respect to ADH blood volume decreases of 10% or more will also have what kind of effect on ADH, and what will be the effect of this effect on ADH?

Effect: ADH production will be stimulated again (right atria activates ADH)

Effect: Blood pressure is increased

The vasa recta system is part of what greater blood system (vascular system) of the nephron system itself, and is it essential for what process is carried out by the vasa recta and loops of Henley?

System: Arterial/Venous

Process: Countercurrent multiplier, resorption

The descending limb of the vasa recta is what? Is it arterial or venus? What does it release? (understand how the vasa recta works in combination with this)

What: Arterial

Release: Water

The ascending limb of the vasa recta is what? Is it arterial or venus? What does it release? (understand how the vasa recta works in combination with this)

What: Venous

Release: Na

DONT NEED The descending loop of the vasa recta absorbs what? The ascending loop of the vasa recta absorbs what? (know what each removes and takes in)

Descending: Na

Ascending: Water

If there is a disruption of ADH production or release, what would be the result? What is the disease that results from it?

Result: Vast amounts of water of lost (can not be retained), persistant thrist

Disease: Diabetes insiphidus

What does aldosterone do? What does it promote (what does it retain, what does it eliminate?)

Do: Released when potassium is too high

Promote: Increases sodium resorption and increases elimination of potassium, increases number of Na/K pumps

Excessive alcohol consumption, what are the ill effects of this with respect to the hormones that have been discussed?

Inhibits ADH
Produces dehydration,
leads to diuresis (hangover/thirst)

The renin angiotensin II cycle. Know what starts it, know the steps, and the result.

promotes- release of aldosterone, ADH, and able to be activated by the sympathetic nervous system activation of renin

(not important)
Start: Liver secretes angiotensin
Steps: Renin removes 2 amino acids (angiotensin I), Angiotensin I reaches lungs, enzyme (ACE) removes 2 more amino acids (Angiotensin II)

Where is aldosterone manufactured from?

Adrenal cortex

Where is vasopressin made and how is it transported to the pituitary? What is the name of the part of the pituitary that it is transported to?

Manufactured: Hypothalamus (magnocellular neurons in paraventricular and supraoptic nucleus)

Transported: By long axons from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

What will an ACE inhibitor be used for? (for what disease)

Hypertension (high blood pressure)

If someone has an inability to produce/ secrete insulin, what type of problem would this person have?

If someone has an insensitivity in their cells to insulin, what kind of disease would this be called?

Inability: Type I diabetes

Insensitivity: Type II diabetes

What are the effects of ADH? What does ADH do to the urine in terms of either concentrating it or making it less concentrated? How does that work and what is the role of ADH?

Effects: Causes more water to be retained and saved

Urine: Makes it more concentrated (darker)

Work: High concentrated (Na+) medullary fluid supplied by loops of Henle

Role: Increases permeability of late distal tubule/collecting duct to water

Diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus share certain kinds of symptoms, what were they? (at least 2 given)

Constant thirst and frequent urination

Where does angiotensin come from (aka angiotensinogen)? Where does renin come from and what does renin do to angiotensin?

Angiotensin: Liver

Renin: Juxtaglomerular cells in kidney, acts on angiotensin and removes 2 amino acids= angiotensin I

What were the factors given that promoted the release of aldosterone?

Blood loss, low sodium, high potassium, low blood pressure

Angiotensin II. What does it do at the adrenal cortex? (what does it release?) What are its effects on the vasculature? Does this act on the hypothalamus?

Cortex: Release of aldosterone

Vasculature: Constricts blood vessels *(vasoactive)*

Hypothalamus: Stimulates hypothalamus to produce ADH (promotes thirst)

when environment temp rises (exercising) blood will dissipate your body heat by what way?

-vasodilation and infrared radiation

Vasodilation represents what type of regulatory process? When the environment increases, what type of regulation is that?

Radiation

Perspiration. What do we know of perspiration in terms of the actual fluid? How is it most affected, how will it produce a cooling effect? How many kilocalories of heat are removed in the process?

Fluid: Salt concentration regulated by aldostrone (low perspiration= dilute, high perspiration= concentrated with salt)

Cooling: Through evaporation from skin

*Kilocalories: 0.6 kilocalories per gram of water evaporated*

Separate the passive from the active forms of temperature regulation. (which are passive, which are active)

Passive: Conduction, convection, radiation

Active: Perspiration

Differentiate between the two types of sweat glands. (ones that are used for keeping cool and ones activated in times of stress) How are they innervated?

Cool: Eccrine (cholinergic sympathetic nerves)

Stress: Apocrine (adrenergic)

If someone has symptoms of cold intolerance, excessive shivering, and decreased metabolic rate, what disease do they have?

Hypothyroidism

Three passive methods for heat control or heat dissipation

conduction, convection, and radiation

Temperature set points that refer to the body's core temperature are set by what?

Hypothalamus

Know the 3 phases of a fever that occur following the realignment of the setpoints by the hypothalamus.

Phase I: core temperature is reset (adaptive for bacterial destruction), shivering, chills, vasoconstriction

Phase II: Plateau-thermal comfort

Phase III: Fever breaks, perspiration, vasodilation

What are the advantages of a convection current when it comes to air or water? Burned finger ex.

Air/water currents help carry away conducted heat (more evenly)

What were the signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion and separate those symptoms from those of heatstroke (how do you differentiate the 2?).

Heat exhaustion: plasma volumes are reduced, extreme vasodilation, blood pressure fails, cardiac output fails, skin is red/clammy, victim passes out

Heatstroke: Inability to dissipate heat, skin is dry/hot, victim can not perspire, skin is not moist/clammy, can lead to death

What is the normal core temperature range (in degrees F or degrees C)

97-99.5 F or 36-37.5 C

High levels of humidity. Are they good for staying cool or not so good? What are the ill effects of high humidity?

Good: NO!

Ill effects: Sweat will not evaporate and will drip off before it can, no cooling, lose more electrolytes

Dogs and cats stay cool by what mechanism and barnyard piggy stay cool by what other mechanism?

Dogs/cats: Convection

Barnyard piggy: Conduction

During warm or hot weather vasodilation and the subsequent heat elimination that follows again represents what?

radiation

90% of circulating levels of thyroid hormone consist of which hormone and 10% consist of which other hormone from the thyroid? Most biological effects of the thyroid hormones are due to circulating levels of which two thyroid hormones? (have more than one name each)

90%: T4 (thyroxine)

10%: T3 (Triiodothyronine), most biologic effects

The epidermis of thick skin has an outer horny layer, a clear layer, a granular layer and a prickle cell layer, however, the epidermis of thin skin does not contain one of these layers. (what are the layers really)

Which layer does thin skin not contain?

Layers: Corneum (horny), lucidum (clear), granulosum (granular), spinosum (prickle cell layer), basale

Thin: Lucidum

What do we know about skin in terms of what it acts like, what properties does it have? What does it help us to do?

Act: Endocrine gland
Properties: Has sensory skin receptors and regenerative elements

Do: Insulation, temp. regulation protects against pathogens and excessive water loss

(DO I NEED)??? Skin has the potential for releasing vitamin D.. therefore what would that make skin?

Endocrine gland

What do the keratinocytes produce? What do the melanocytes produce? What do the cells of Langerhans provide?

Keratinocytes: keratin and vitamin D (90% epidermis)

Melanocytes: melanin (Pigment) (8% epidermis)

Langerhans: immunity

What receptors mediate fine touch? What receptors mediate vibration and pressure?

Fine touch: meissner and merkel
Vibration/pressure: bosnian and refini

The integumentary system (or skin) is made up of what structures? What structures are included?

Skin, hair, nails, surface glands and ducts

Very high doses of hydrochlorothiazide will inhibit the resorption/retention of large amounts of sodium (AND release high levels of hyperkalemia) that will then trigger the release of which hormone?

Aldosterone

Which could lead to a decline too which cation? Look at mechanism involved in hydrochlorothiazide use.

K+ potassium

Chronic stress can produce another type of diabetes. What was this called and how does it happen? (persistent cortisol release)

Called: Adrenal -form of type II- diabetes

Cause: Cortisol raises blood sugar levels, releases high levels of insulin, build intolerance

Growth hormone is released early in development, but what releasing factor will inhibit growth hormone?

Somatostatin (GHIH)

What kinds of factors will produce thyroid goiter? Look at the feedback loops involved in the production of producing a thyroid goiter and do not forget iodine!

Insufficient iodine diet, pituitary secretes too much TSH (no negative feedback from T4 and T3.. hypertrophy)

Gigantism occurs under certain conditions when growth hormone is released. Acromegaly is another condition that occurs under a different set of situations. What are these situations (development) involving this hormone? (how do we get gigantism and acromegaly?)

Gigantism: Growth hormone is abnormally active, tumor in pituitary (before epiphyseal plates fuse)

Acromegaly: Tumor in pituitary (after epiphyseal plates fuse)

Which pancreatic cells release glucagon and which of those pancreatic cells release/produce insulin?

Glucagon: Alpha cells

Insulin: Beta cells

Hydrocortisone serves many bodily needs. What ones were given?

Maintain blood pressure and cardiovascular function, slows immune system's inflammatory response, maintains glucose levels in blood, regulates metabolism of proteins, carbs and fats, stimulates gluconeogenesis

What creates the hypophysial portal system?

Sinusoids, the capillary beds of the pituitary

Where is the hypophysial fossa? It is a deep depression in what bone?

Sphenoid bone and sphenoid sinus

Tuberoinfundibular tract is associated with which nuclei, but the supraopticohypophyseal tract is associated with which other two nuclei of the hypothalamus? (separate the two with respect to hypothalamic nuclei). Separate the two with respect to the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis)

Tuberoinfundibular:
Nuclei: arcuate nucleus
Pituitary: delivers releasing/release inhibiting hormones to adenohypophysis

Supraopticohypophyseal:
Nuclei: Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
Pituitary: delivers releasing/release inhibiting hormones to neurohypophysis

Keep in mind the parvocellular vs magnocellular neurosecretory systems. (parvocellular is associated with which of the two tuberoinfundibular or supraopticohypophyseal , magnocellular is associated with which?). Which of these systems utilizes the blood capillary portal system for transporting endocrine peptides into the hypophysis (one with short axons).

Parvocellular: Tuberoinfundibular

Magnocellular: Supraopticohypophyseal

Capillary: Parvocellular (released into adenohypophyseal capillary system)

How was the endocrine system defined? In terms of glads/hormones secreted?

Endocrine: composed of a series of ductless glands that secrete their contents into the circulatory blood or lymphatic fluid

Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, hypothalamus, thymus, adrenals

Hormones: hormones are released directly into the blood to organs/tissues (controlled by hypothalamus)

Which hormones are manufactured, stored, and released from the adenohypophysis and which are not?

Are: GRH, ACTH, MSH, TSH, FSH, LH, Prolactin (luteotropic hormone)

Are not: Insulin, glucagon, renin, erythropoietin, oxy., ADH, angiotensinogen

What does oxytocin do? What functions does it perform? (include some behavioral effects of oxytocin)

Promotes milk from mammary glands, promotes contractions, reduces aggression, regulates female orgasm, produced in males following repeated sexual encounters or experiences

Thyrotropin (TSH) is stimulated by which releasing hormone and is inhibited by which inhibitory releasing hormone?

Stimulated: TRH

Inhibited: GHIH; SRIF (Somatostatin)

Which two hormones are transported to the neurohypophysis by long axons?

Oxytocin & ADH

Endorphins reduce the negative emotional impact of stress and arousal, but which hormone facilitates the negative emotional impact of stress and arousal?

ACTH (Adrenocorticoptropic hormone)

Periods of light have one effect on pineal secretions and periods of darkness cause another effect on pineal gland secretions. What were these?

Light: Decline in melatonin synthesis

Dark: Disrupt: pontaneous locomotor activity, circadian rhythms for sleep, estrous cycle, seasonal reproductive cycle, melatonin is secreted in larger amounts

The pineal gland regulates behaviors that involve certain kinds of rhythms and what else do you know about the pineal gland (what is it called, its shape, main secretory product, what kinds of effects does pineal secretions have on the gonads (positive effects or negative effects?)

Rhythms: Circadian (sleep, temp., reproductive)

Called: Pineal body/epiphysis

Shape: Cone-shaped

Product: Melatonin

Gonads: Inhibitory influence on gonads/reproduction

What does prolactin (luteotropic hormone) do? What does it promote the production of? What stimulates prolactin production (which releasing factor promotes prolation production and which neurotransmitter inhibits prolactin production?)

Do: Stimulates lactation

Promotes: TRH, production of milk

Inhibits: Dopamine

What does LH and FSH do in males vs females?

Males:
LH: Activates leydig cells to produce testosterone
FSH: Spermatogenesis

Females:
LH: Ovulation
FSH: Growth of ovarian follicles

In females, follicles mature to 8-10mm in diameter and secrete what?

Estradiol (estrogen)

How many sperm does the human male make per day? Where are they stored (most are stored one place and some are stored in another)

Make: 120 million per day

Stored: Ductus deferens (vas deferens), and epididymis

Are muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs encapsulated or not encapsulated and where are they found? In what kinds of muscle?

Encapsulated/not encapsulated: Encapsulated

Muscle: striated Skeletal muscle

If someone has increased food intake, decreased bodyweight, sweating, dilation of the vasculature close to the skin surface, and heat intolerance, what kind of disease does this person have?

Hyperthyroidism

The adrenal cortex produces which hormones and the adrenal medulla produces which other hormones?

Cortex: Glucocorticoids (cortisol) & mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) & androgens

Medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine

The pineal gland receives input from which kinds of pathways (projections)? Know all the fiber pathways that go from the retina to the pineal gland.

Retina to hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus) then to retinohypothalamic tract

What is DMT? What is it derived from, what properties does it have, where is it produced, what kinds of hallucinations will it cause?

What: Hallucinogen

Derived: 5-HT (serotonin)

Properties: Can act at NMDA receptors

Produced: Epiphysis (pineal gland)

Hallucinations: "near-death experience" (religious visions), "mystical states"

Complete and through mastication is important for what kinds of functions? (why do we need to chew our food?)

Increases surface area of foods and allow for more efficient breakdown (enzymes)

What is swallowing called? What is a disorder of swallowing called? Which plexus of neurons control the muscles involved in swallowing?

Called: Deglutition

Disorder: Dysphagia

Plexus: Pharyngeal plexus (C9,C10,C11)

Define the glottis and define the epiglottis

Glottis: Part of larynx consisting of vocal cords and opening between them

Epiglottis: Flap of cartilage that covers trachea during swallowing

What are the anterior faucial pillars called? What are the posterior faucial pillars called? (one connects the pallet soft pallet to the tongue and the other one connects the soft pallet to the larynx.. both involved in swallowing and innervated by the same plexus of nerves)

Anterior: Patatoglossus/Glossoplalantine muslces

Posterior: Palatopharyngeus/Pharyngopalatine muscles

What were the regions of the areas of the stomach given? (inside)

Cardia, fundus, body, antrum, pylorus

Understand the pyloric pump (retropulsion) with respect to the pyloric sphincter and how it works.

Constrictor waves (mixing waves) begin at fundus and move towards antrum, chyme is pushed towards sphincter, sphincter regulates the amount of flow that is permitted into duodenum