Mary I - A Level OCR History

The problem of gender

The accession of a female ruler caused serious concerns. England had been ruled by a female once in the 12th century - this had resulted in a civil war as many had refused to accept Matilda as Queen, supporting Stephen instead.

Some countries also excluded women through the Salic law, and it is argued that one of the reason H8 was so concerned about having a male heir was because he believed that a female ruler would create dynastic weakness. There were a number of reasons why it was feared that a female ruler would weaken the monarchy:

1. A woman would be unable to control faction.

2. A woman would be unable to lead a army into battle.

3. A woman was expected to marry, creating further problems e.g. Mary's suitors and the idea of subservience.

It therefore raised two further problems:

1. If Mary married an Englishman, the power of her husband's family would increase and they might dominate court.

2. If Mary married a foreigner there were fears that the court would be dominated by foreigners.

Mary's marriage

In The First Blast and Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, Knox expressed his view that it was unnatural and insulting for a woman to rule. However, it was Mary's marriage to Philip of Spain that caused significant problems. There were two realistic candidates:

1. Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon, backed by Gardiner.

2. Philip of Spain, backed by Paget.

Courtenay was descended from royal blood, but Philip would bring England closer to the Habsburgs, to whom Catherine of Aragon was related.

Philip was likely to be powerful, and it was expected that she would be dragged into wars. These fears played a significant role in Wyatt's rebellion of 1554, although it could be argued that it was May's skills that defeated him.

Mary informed the Council on 27 October 1553 that it was her intention to marry Philip. There was a petition from the House of Commons opposing her decision, yet she ignored it. On 7 December a marriage treaty was presented, and approved in January 1554.

The treaty and reassurances didn't prevent rebellion which broke out in January 1554, only six months after the Lady Jane Grey Affair - this could be used as further evidence to suggest there was instability surrounding a female ruler. Plotting begun as soon as there were rumours of the marriage, involving members of the political elite e.g. Croft, Carew and Wyatt.

These men all held office under H8 and E6, but feared they would lose influence and be replaced by Spaniards who'd dominate government and court. This led to risings in Devon, Wales, Kent and Leicestershire.

However, whether the proclamation of marriage was the real cause is debatable as Wyatt was a Protestant, with other leaders having links to the reformed faith. The rebels did get as far as the gates of London, but Mary was able to put them down.

Despite the defeat of the rebellion, it did have an impact on stability as the marriage did not take place until 12 months after Mary took the throne, and after the marriage Philip spent more time abroad than in England, limiting his influence.

The Succession in 1553

In the early months of 1553, Edward VI's health began to decline - despite treatment, he continued to decline.

According to the Succession Acts and Henry's will, the throne was to pass to Mary. Yet, during the spring-summer a plot developed to exclude Mary. Most accounts suggest the scheme was the work of Northumberland as:

1. It was essential to preserve his power.

2. As a Protestant he would lose power when the Catholic Mary came to the throne.

These accounts suggest that he arranged the marriage of his son, Guildford Dudley, to Lady Jane Grey - this was followed by Edward changing is will and naming Jane his heir.

Yet, there's evidence to suggest that Edward was the driving force behind the attempts:

1. Played a greater role in government, attending Privy Council meetings and setting some agendas.

2. Edward was a committed Protestant and wanted to stop the throne passing to Mary, a Catholic.

3. Edward wanted the religious reform programme to continue.

The Devise

The Devise for the Succession was initially drawn up in May 1553, naming the male heirs of the Grey family as the successors, yet if there were no male heirs/likelihood before Edward died it would turn to Jane. It was only with this change that Northumberland's importance increased - when Dudley married her, she wasn't heir.

The Plot

The plot was poorly managed, supporting the view that it was Edward and not Northumberland behind its organisation:

1. As an experienced soldier, Northumberland would have ensured sufficient forces to take control, yet the professional forces had been dismissed in 1552.

2. He would have ensured Mary was captured, but she escaped to East Anglia.

3. he would have launched a propaganda campaign to prepare the nation for the change in succession.

When Edward died on 6 July, news was kept quiet for two days. Mary quickly responded to proclaim herself Queen, sending letters to the Privy Council and important towns, and thus behaving as the rightful, legitimate monarch.

The question of legitimacy was important for the ruling class - if they supported an illegal claimant all laws could be challenged and their right to land questioned - was in their interest to support the rightful ruler.

Although Jane was proclaimed Queen, against her wishes, on 10 July, her rule didn't last with the collapse of the rebellion.

Mary Tudor's death

Mary made no attempt to alter the succession in 1558, although she attempted to persuade Elizabeth to maintain the Catholic faith. When she died, the crown was offered to her sister, suggesting that the legitimacy/succession stated by Henry in the Third Succession Act was more important than issues of religious belief.

Faction under Mary

One major concern about a female ruler was the belief that they would be unable to control factions - this already appeared to be the case over Mary's proposed marriage, with two leading councillors supporting different suitors.

There were also fears that a Spanish marriage would create conflict between English courtiers and the expected influx of Spanish courtiers. Despite these concerns, there is no evidence to suggest it had an impact on the efficiency of the administration.

Divisions within the Privy Council

Mary's Privy Council was large - she brought in her own supporters who'd helped her gain the throne, also keeping the experienced:

1. Was rare for all councillors to be present.

2. Average size of meetings similar to those held under Northumberland.

3. Committees were established in 1554, excluding casual councillors.

4. 1555 - 'inner council' created.

5. Philip's departure in 1555 and death of Gardiner in November 1555 allowed Paget to dominate and establish a conciliar form of government.

Clashes between Gardiner and Paget

Clashes between Gardiner and Paget, initially over Mary's marriage, resumed over the revival of heresy laws. In April 1554 parliament rejected their reintroduction and didn't agree to them until they had guarantees that monastic lands wouldn't be restored to the Church.

This appeared to provide clear evidence of the unpopularity of Mary's religious policies, yet the struggle to introduce them was largely to do with factional struggle - the same legislation that had been initially rejected was passed once Paget supported it.

Despite the delay in introducing the legislation and the desire of Gardiner/Paget to persuade the Queen to support their policies, they were able to put aside differences.

The impact of Pole

Could be argued that the arrival of Cardinal Pole as papal legate changed the nature of court politics. It is arguable that Mary was aware of the divisions among her councillors and therefore she had everything referred to him, or the Spanish ambassador, Simon Renard - it appeared that she didn't trust her councillor's advice.

However, debates over policy in the Privy Council were usually constructive and faction could often be utilised.

As with Edward's reign, there's no evidence to suggest that the struggles created inefficiency or prevented the government and administration from working.

Religious polices under Mary

At the start of her reign, she issued a proclamation stating that she intended to proceed cautiously in religious matters, yet her aims were to:

1. Undo the religious changes made since 1529.

2. Restore papal authority.

3. Restore traditional Catholic practices.

4. Re-establish monasteries.

5. End clerical marriage.

6. Persecute those who didn't agree with her views.

7. Secure long-term future for Catholicism by marrying/having an heir.

Bells were rung and parliament opened with a mass, even though it was illegal. Despite this apparent support, there were still difficulties.

Restoration of papal authority

Parliament met in October 1553, but refused to repeal the Act of Supremacy.

The Act of Repeal was passed which undid the changes made under Edward and restored the situation to that of 1547 under the Act of Six Articles. Mary used the royal prerogative to suspend the Second Act of Uniformity and restore mass, which didn't provoke serious opposition.

Yet, there was some disquiet, seen with Wyatt's rebellion, before any significant religious change had occurred.

Restoration of Catholic practices

In the spring of 1554 royal injunctions restored some traditional Catholic practices e.g. holy days, processions and ceremonies. A large number of married clergy were also deprived and Protestant bishops were removed.

Heresy laws and Second Act of Repeal

Initial attempts to restore heresy laws in April 1554 were rejected by parliament - they wouldn't agree until guarantees were made that former monastic lands wouldn't be restored.

However, opposition was probably due mrs to factional conflict that true opposition to Mary's religious policies.

The Second Act of Repeal, repealing all religious legislation passed since 1529, was passed in November 1554, but Mary was forced into a compromise with landowners, guaranteeing the rights of those who'd bought Church land since 1536.

The heresy laws were reintroduced in 1554 and burnings began in 1555.

Catholic reform

The return of Cardinal Pole to England was followed by the introduction of a number of measures to increase the appeal of Catholicism:

1. Bishops ordered to make regular visitations and check clerical behaviour.

2. The London Synod, which stressed the importance of priests being resident and the ending of pluralism, was established.

3. Pole ordered new publications e.g. a Catholic NT and Book of Homilies.

4. Pole wanted seminaries in every diocese.

There were also attempts to control Protestant literature and increase the availability of Catholic works, with sponsoring of sermons at St Paul's Cross and the publication of writings e.g. Matthew Hogarde.

Attitudes to Marian policies and Catholic restoration

The reaction to the crowing of Lady Jane Grey and Mary's overthrow, as well as the lack of evidence for popular support for many Edwardian reforms, suggests that traditional religious practices were still popular. However, as the 1549 Western Rebellion illustrated, there was not unconditional support for the restoration of papal authority. Moreover, much of her support was due to the fact that she was seen as the rightful ruler.

Evidence for popular support for Mary's religious policies

Mary's return to London was supported e.g. in churches and in parliament. In Oxford, chalices reappeared, and an altar and cross were established on 23 August at St Nicholas Cole Abbey in London, where mass was said. Large numbers also turned out for Mary's coronation, a contrast to Jane's.

However, this reaction did not facilitate the ease of a Catholic restoration.

Opposition in parliament

Although there was opposition in parliament to some religious changes, this was not usually the result of religious concerns, as was the case with heresy laws, the Aliens Act or the Second Act of Repeal. Instead, it was due to factional, economic and land concerns e.g. the loss of monastic lands purchased since 1536 that many were opposed. Once there were guarantees about this security, legislation was passed.

Wyatt's rebellion

Wyatt's rebellion is viewed as evidence for the unpopularity of Mary's religious policies, yet it began before any serious changes had been implemented. Although the leaders had Protestant sympathies, it was likely that the rebellion was sparked by Mary's proposed marriage to Philip, with the two factors linking closely.

The marriage could also strengthen Mary's position, making it easier for her to impose religious legislation and secure a Catholic succession. Yet, give that she was already 37, this was unlikely.

Marian exiles

As the nature of the religious changes became apparent in the early months of 1554, some Protestants began to leave England. A total of c.800 committed Protestants, mostly gentry, clergy and the more wealthy, left England and went into exile on the continent for the rest of Mary's reign. Yet, this was not an option for those who were poorer.

At the start of Mary's reign, many were willing to see what developments took place, with a number not expecting Mary's reign to last, also raising doubts surrounding her ability to produce an heir.

Popular support

Seen in parishes e.g. Morebath in Devon, where parishioners raised considerable sums to purchase vestments and other equipment needed to carry out Catholic services.

Evidence would suggest that Catholic worship returned quickly in most parishes. Yet, some churches had been neglected during Edward's reign, meaning it would take more time to restore the equipment.

This, however, was not the greatest obstacle to the Catholic restoration, with Mary's failure to produce an heir causing further issues.

Elizabeth's struggle to establish a Protestant Church also suggests that Mary's policies were largely popular.

Catholic persecution

The reintroduction of the heresy laws had a serious impact. During the period following the first burning of John Rogers in February 1555, nearly 300 went to the stake, 51 of whom were women. Most burnings took place in the south-east, London, Canterbury and Colchester.

According to some accounts it lost Mary support as many e.g. the fisherman Rawlins White, were ordinary citizens.

Yet, this view has been coloured by writings such as John Foxe's Book of Martyrs during Elizabeth's reign.

John Foxe and his impact

The burnings were largely documented in John Foxe's Actsand Monuments (1563), known as The Book of Martyrs. This influenced the understanding and impact of the events, suggesting that there was widespread opposition to the regime.

Some have argued that those who actually attended the burnings were so impressed by the dedication of those being burnt that they themselves converted. Yet, evidence to support this claim is limited.

The impact of the burnings

Historians have also challenged Foxe's view, although the Spanish ambassador expressed concern about the impact of the burnings, fearing it would cause unrest.

In October 1555, Bishops Ridley and Latimer were burnt at Oxford, followed in March 1556 by Cranmer.

Although Mary may have seen the executions as necessary, some suggest it was her biggest error.

Cranmer had committed treason in supporting Lady Jane Grey and could have been executed - his burning gave him the chance to withdraw his previous recantations once it was apparent he would not be spared, yet it evidently failed to aid the Catholic cause.

The death of Gardiner in November 1555 removed a restraining influence on Mary. Initially he had supported the persecutions, but he became aware that they did not work and were hardening opposition. His death was followed by an increase, with 274 being burnt in the last three years of her reign.

The burnings were usually seen as spectacles e.g. the cherry pickers from Kent welcomed it as it would increase the market. Although London magistrates had to order the burnings to take place early in the day so numbers were reduced, there will still significant disruptions.

The geography of the burnings

Most took place the south-east, which had a higher proportion of Protestants. However, it could also be that the area was closer to London and authorities were more concerned about the dangers, putting further pressure on local authorities to act.

This is supported by the number of letters sent to JPs in the south urging action. Some have argued that the need for letters is evidence that they were unwilling to support action, yet other factors explained the delays, e.g:

1. The war against France in 1557.

2. JPs were unwilling to enforce other legislation e.g. Vagrancy Laws.

3. There were regular reminders to JPs to implement laws.

The degree of damage it did to Mary's popularity is therefore debatable.

The Lady Jane Grey affair - Political issues

When Northumberland's son married Jane Grey in My 1553, the health of Edward was such that it was believed he would live. Northumberland therefore had little to gain politically. It was Edward's declining health that changed the situation. The change made to the Devise meant that Northumberland became the father-in-law of the prospective Queen, perhaps suggesting that he had not been involved in the plot.

Religious issues

Instead, religious issues were prominent. Edward was strongly Protestant, and thus concerned about his Catholic sister taking the throne.

Once Northumberland's position changed he did attempt to secure it, aware that his Protestant beliefs meant he was likely to be excluded by Mary. Northumberland may also have though he would gain support from the elite as he'd restored stability after the failings of Somerset's rule, and many wanted them to continue.

It could be argued that those who'd gained land from the Dissolution may have offered support due to the fear of losing land after the restoration.

Threat to Mary

Northumberland was able to have Lady Jane Grey proclaimed Queen. If he'd been able to capture Mary before she fled to East Anglia, the plot may have succeeded. Northumberland initially had the support of the Privy Council, but Mary, by raising a force, proclaiming herself Queen, issuing proclamations, letters of summons, and using Charles V, raised the possibility of civil war.

Northumberland lost his advantage as was forced to leave London to confront Mary - this allowed members of the Privy Council the chance to reconsider. Many gave their support to Mary, while Northumberland failed to engender support as he marched east - much of his own force deserted him. This led him to retreat to Cambridge, proclaiming Mary Queen.

Aftermath

The sudden collapse of the plot suggests that it stood no chance. This appears to be reinforced by the enthusiasm with which Mary was greeted when she entered London. Some may have feared the return to instability, therefore supporting the legitimate ruler. However, it did place many who had initially supported Northumberland in a difficult position. The leniency shown to many suggests that Mary considered her position weak and she needed support:

1. She soon released Gardiner and Norfolk from jail.

2. She appointed Paget to the Privy Council.

Yet, Northumberland, Grey and Dudley were arrested, and later executed.

Wyatt's rebellion - causes

The timing suggests that Mary's marriage was the main cause as the rebellion began soon after there were rumours of the marriage. Hatred of foreigners was aroused, and stories circulated that the English court would be dominated by Spaniards. There were fears that Mary would be dominated by her husband and England would be dragged into Habsburg conflicts.

There were also rumours that Mary was to be removed and replaced by Elizabeth, and by December 1553 this had developed into a plot. What's propaganda certainly stressed the issue of marriage, aware that it would win him greater support than some religious argument. Yet, there is some evidence of religious motivation:

1. The leaders had Protestant sympathies.

2. The area around Maidstone where he gained most support was Protestant.

3. Wyatt received advice from the deprived Protestant Bishop of Winchester.

4. No prominent member of the plot was Catholic.

5. On reaching London, the rebels attacked the property of the newly restored Catholic Bishop of Winchester.

However, at the time of the plot, persecution of Protestants hadn't started. Economic factors, such as the declining Kent cloth industry, were likely to have aided support.

Wyatt's rebellion - events

The court were aware of the plot, examining Edward Courtenay (who was proposed to marry Elizabeth). He revealed most details and forced the rebels to act without full preparation. It was only in Kent that the rebellion occurred, led by a member of the Kentish gentry, Thomas Wyatt.

He had supported Mary against lady Jane Grey but was fearful he would lose support with the influx of foreign courtiers.

The appeal to xenophobia made it difficult for the regime to raise forces against Wyatt, and he was able to play on fears. Wyatt fathered a force of c.3,000 men, laying siege to Cooling Castle and giving Mary time to rally forces e.g. her speech as Guildhall. Yet, it was a threat:

1. Troops sent to deal with Wyatt had changed sides, stating 'We are all Englishmen.'

2. many waited to see what would happen, initially failing to support Mary.

3. The rising had been close to London.

Wyatt's rebellion - aftermath

The lack of punishment following the revolt suggests Mary feared that further punishment would provoke more unrest. It may explain why Elizabeth and Courtenay survived. It may have been Mary's speech as Guildhall which flattered her supporters, and she ignored the Council's advice to leave London.

The failure of the rebellion, and others in the period, may have caused a change in outlook, making most realise that the rebellion was futile/indirectly strengthening the regime.