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Learning
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Associative learning
learning that certain events occur together (2 stimuli or response and consequence)
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
Respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli
Behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned response (UR)
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response
Conditioned response (CR)
a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
Acquisition
the initial stage in CC when one links a NS and an US so that the NS begins triggering the CR
Higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (AKA 2nd order conditioning)
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (NOT punishment)
Discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned (Secondary) reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
Cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned this
Latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Observational learning
learning by observing others; also called social learning
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
Preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
Pro social behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
anti-social behaviour
negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior