AP Psych - unit 3.2

Learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together (2 stimuli or response and consequence)

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response (UR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response

Conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

Acquisition

the initial stage in CC when one links a NS and an US so that the NS begins triggering the CR

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (AKA 2nd order conditioning)

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (NOT punishment)

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned (Secondary) reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned this

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

Preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Pro social behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

anti-social behaviour

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior