Argument Pratice

What is burden of proof?

The arguer shifts the burden of proving their claim with evidence to disprove the opponent. The opponent must disprove the arguer’s claim makes it invalid!

What is cherry picking?

Arguer uses carefully selected evidence to support claim and ignores ignores evidence that contradicts their claim.

What is equivocation?

Arguer uses a word with different meanings for a misleading conclusion. Confuses the audience (often for those English not first language).

What is 2 wrongs (don’t) make a right?

Justifying your own wrongs by calling out other’s wrong. An eye for an eye.

What is the appeal to spite?

Use spite/jealously as evidence to support argument.

What is Texas Sharpshooter?

When the arguer creates a random pattern in data, treats it as evidence, and shapes their argument around that set of data → makes them look right all along

What is Ad Hominem Circumstantial?

Attacking an opponent’s argument by pointing out that their interests are benefited by their argument.

What is Tu Quoque?

Assuming an opponent’s argument is invalid since the opponent has done or is doing the thing they are argument against. (Being a hypocrite doesn’t make their argument invalid).

What is Ad Feminam?

Attacking a female opponent based on gender roles and stereotypes.

What is Appeal to Tradition/Common Practice?

The argument is true because it has been done many times with no evidence to support it.

What is the Appeal to Novelty?

The argument is true because it is new and modern.

What is misleading vividness?

Few or one big dramatic emotional example make a claim true. Overrides the smaller events that make the claim false.

What is a Gambler’s Fallacy?

The invalid belief that past random events influence the probability of future events when they are both independent.

What is the Sunk Cost Fallacy?

Being reluctant and further committing to an action despite it being better to abandon that action.

What is the appeal to flattery?

Instead of presenting evidence, → appeals to the audience using their characteristics and praises them to support their argument.

What is middle ground fallacy?

Presenting 2 extreme options and the compromise is the solution when the compromise is invalid and lacks evidence. (Neither party is happy!)

What is the perfect solution fallacy?

Completely rejecting a realistic solution since it is not perfect (no evidence to support the rejection).

What is No True Scotsman (appeal to purity) fallacy?

When an arguer makes a generalization of a group or thing to refute an opponent’s counterargument, since they do not fit their generalization. (This generalization doesn’t make the opponent not part of the group.)

What is the biased sample fallacy?

Using a small sample of data to support an argument that doesn’t represent the whole population → skew results.

What makes hasty generalization different from biased sample?

The conclusion is made quickly and not enough evidence to support the conclusion.

What is the slippery slope fallacy?

Makes a claim that small action that will trigger a reaction of large consequences without proof. (Doesn’t have to be bad!)

What is the appeal to fear?

Uses fear to persuade an audience through exaggerations and threats.

What is guilt by association?

Discrediting an opponent’s argument by pointed out that the group they are associated with is evil, while not attacking the merits of the argument.

What is Poisoning the Well?

Discrediting the opponent by bringing up irreverent information before an argument takes place in order to make the audience biased against them.

How is Ad Homenim different from Poisoning the Well?

Ad homenim attacks happen during the argument, while poisoning the well takes place before an argument begins to make the audience biased.

What is genetic fallacy?

Judging the argument based on the source or origin of the idea rather than the content of the idea.

What is the appeal to pity?

Persuades the audience by invoking guilt or pity (guilt-tripping) rather than evidence.

What is the ignoring cause and effect fallacy?

Incorrectly concluding that a chain of events was caused by each other, when they actually occurred because of a common cause.

What is confuse cause and effect fallacy?

Incorrectly concluding that Event A → Event B when it actually was Event B → Event A. (Switching up cause and effect).

How is Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc different from confusing and ignoring cause and effect?

From a chain of 2 events, assumes that the first event caused the second event. While ignoring common cause is when a common cause for a chain of events is disregarded. While confuse cause and effect is when you switch the cause and effect.

What is an argument?

Reasoned investigation with discussion → common ground

What are rogerian arguments?

The assumption is that you understand the opposing position → Essential for: responding well and refuting (accommodate not alienate)

What are good arguments?

Persuasive discussion, clear movement of claim to a conclusion.

What is a claim?

Assertion that states argument’s main idea or position.

What is true about a claim?

It is not a fact and reasonable people can diagree.

What are claims of fact?

Assert: something is true or not.

What are claims of value?

Argue: good or bad, right or wrong

What are claims of policy?

Present: direct call to action or recommendation for change

What is induction?

A series of examples set up for deductive reasoning.

What is deduction?

Reaching a conclusion with universal truths (major premise) then applying to specific cases (minor premise).

What is syllogism?

Structure that uses major premise and minor premises to reach a valid conclusion.

How is persuasion different from an argument?

Aims to convince an audience through emotional appeals instead of evidence.

What are the purpose of argumentation?

Gain legitimacy and convince of credibility.

What are the purpose of persuasion?

Gain consent and motivate action or inaction

What appeal does argumentation use?

Appeals to logic

What appeals does persuasion use?

Appeals to values, desires, emotions.

What tone do arguments use?

Formal

What tone does persuasion use?

formal or informal (nonstandard)

What is true about assertions in arguments?

Clear assertions in the first, second, or third sentence. Assertions in arguments can be supported linearly (through most to least or least to most).

What is true about assertions in persuasion?

Assertions are implied, not clearly mentioned. Assertions in persuasions are built for building emotions.

What is true about the endings of arguments?

Summary of repeated arguments

What is true about the endings of persuasion?

Directed toward action or inaction.

How is circular reasoning different from burden of proof?

Creates a conclusion by the evidence being the claim itself. Does not force the opposition to refute the claim. Ex: Water is wet because water is wet.

How is burden of proof different from circular reasoning?

Shifts the responsibility of proofing argument to the opponent instead of the arguer. Does not restate the claim in the conclusion. Ex: water is wet because you cannot prove it is dry.

What is a red herring?

When a speaker skips to a new and irreverent topic to avoid the topic of discussion.

What is an ad hominem?

Attacking the person and not the argument itself

What is bandwagon appeal?

When the only evidence is “everyone else is doing it so you should too!”. Evidence that demonstrates popularity doesn’t make the argument true.

What is classical oration?

A structure for an argument that introduces a reader to a subject and what they should do about the subject. Consists of 5 parts.

What is the first part of classical orration?

Exordium (Introduction). Your “hook” to the audience to get interest and introduce the subject you are discussing. Appeals used for hook are logos and ethos.

What is second part of classical oration?

Narratio. Provides relevant information and provides background. Creates the setting for an argument. Establishes why subject should be addressed.

What is the third part of classical orration?

Confirmation (confirmatio). Includes development of proof needed to make writer’s case. Strongest appeal to logos.

What is fourth part of classical oration?

Refutation (refuatio). Address counterargument. Bridge between proof and conclusion. Appeals to logos.

What is fifth of classical oration?

The (peroratio) conclusion. Brings argument to an end and ties all ideas together. Creates a call to action, so the audience knows why they listened to the argument.

What are examples of first-hand evidence?

Personal experience (writer tells a story about themselves), Anecdotes (short story), Observations, General knowledge

What is first-hand evidence?

Evidence you know directly.

What is second-hand evidence?

Evidence from reading and research

What are examples of second-hand evidence?

Facts, historical info, expert opinion (must be relevant to topic), quantitative data (beware numbers can be changed to support any subject)

What are the 3 properties of evidence that they must have to be effective?

Relevant, Sufficient, accurate

What are open thesis statements?

Does not list every single point, the arguer wants to make. Made for guiding an essay.

What are close thesis statements?

States the main idea of an argument and organizes main points of argument

What is the function of the Toulmin Model?

Way to analyze and structure an argument. Effective at uncovering assumptions of an argument.

What is the first part of the Toulmin Model?

Evidence. The facts that supports the claim.

What is the second part of the Toulmin model?

The assumption. Link between the claim and evidence.

What is the third part of the Toulmin model?

The backing. Assures the validness of an assumption.

What is the fourth part of the Toulmin model?

The qualifier. Makes the claim less absolute. (Usually with words like probably or usually)

What is the fifth part of the Toulmin model?

The reservation. Addresses the counterargument to claim → provides voice to those who don’t agree.

What is the sixith part of the Toulmin model?

The claim. The argument that the arguer wants to prove to the audience.

What is the false dilemma fallacy?

Presenting 2 extreme options as the only possible choices.

What is the false analogy fallacy?

Comparing 2 things that are not comparable.

What is hasty generalization?

When not enough evidence → support a conclusion.

What is a strawman fallacy?

When the arguer chooses: poor and oversimplified example → to refute an opponent.

What is circular reasoning?

Repeating the claim as evidence. The conclusion is supported by the claim.

What is false authority?

When the opinions of an expert is used to support a subject completed unrelated to their expertise.