Bio Exam #2

4 classes of macromolecules

lipids, proteins, carbs, nucleic acids

dehydration synthesis

form polymers via loss of a water molecules

Hydrolysis

breaking down a polymer

Enzymes

speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy

regulate metabolism

synthesize or breakdown large molecules

carbohydrate monomer

monosaccharide

formula of carbohydrates

ch2o

disaccharide

2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration reaction

glycosidic linkage

ether bond joins a sugar to another group

plastids

storage polysaccharides

starch

plant storage polysaccharide

glycogen

animal storage polysaccharide

Cellulose

Structural polysaccharide

plant wall

most abundant earth compound

looks like starch, but has alternating hydroxyl groups

forms hydrogen bonds with other chains

fiber

chitin

exoskeleton of arthopods

lipids

does not include true polymers (no monomers strung together)

non polar

phospholipid

phosphate and lipid

glycerol and 2 fatty acids and phosphate group

hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails

make up cell membranes

steroids

hormones

fats

store energy, long term food reserves, absorb vitamins, cushions organs, insulates, cell communication, hormones

glycerol (hydrophilic) and 3 fatty acids (hydrophobic) (hydrocarbons)

saturated fats

single bonds, maximum number of hydrogens

animal fats, solid at room temp

unsaturated fat

double bonds (causes bending)

could take more hydrogens

oils, liquid at room temp

trans fats

has trans double bonds, formed by hydrogenation, body puts in arteries

hydrogenation

converting unsaturated to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

steroids

carbon skeleton + four fused rings

cholesterol synthesizes hormones and keeps membranes fluid

nitrogen

proteins contain

protein monomer

amino acids

protein polymer

polypeptide

defensive proteins

immune system

identify cancer and parasites

Storage Proteins

store amino acids

egg whites

used for developing embryos

albumin

Transport Proteins

inside and outside of cell

transports molecules through hydrophobic interior of cell membrane

hormones

Insulin is made of

receptor proteins

signalling molecues react to stimuli and stimulate a change with this type of proteins

structural proteins

support (skin, hair, horns, etc.)

amino acids

attached to assymetrical carbon

has a carboxyl and amine group + a side chain (R group)

side chain

when calling an amino acid acidic or basic, only refer to the

Covalent peptide bonds

link amino acids

functional protein

has one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, etc into a unique shape. This shape determines the specific activity of the molecules

Primary structure

sequence of amino acids in a protein

Secondary structure

results from hydrogen bonds between repeating parts of polypeptide backbone

Either alpha helix or beta pleated sheets

Tertiary structure

interactions among r-groups in proteins (hydrogen, ionic, hydrophilic, van der waals, disulfide bridges)

Quaternary structure

2 or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule

denature

a protein unravelling due to unideal conditions

genes

consist of DNA, a nucleic acid made of nucelotides

codes for proteins

gene

central dogma of molecular biology

genetic info flows in one direction, DNA to RNA to protein

Nucleotides are made of

a nitrogenous base

a pentose sugar

a phosphate group

nucleosides

have no phosphate group

types of nitrogenous bases

pyrimidine (single six-membered ring, cytosine, thymine (in DNA), uracil (in RNA))

Purine (six membered ring fused to 5 membered ring, Adenine, guanine)

sugars in nucleic acids

DNA (deoxyribose, has hydrogen (WITHOUT OX)

RNA (ribose, has hydroxide)

phosphodiester linkage

adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds between a hydroxyl group on a 3’ carbon and a phosphate group on a 5’ carbon

A+T

G+C

base pair rules polynucleotides

complementary base pairing

pairs of bases are bonded with hydrogen bonds in a consistent way

thymine

RNA does not have _____ and instead has uracil

Cell theory

Cells make up all organisms

basic unit of life

cells are all descended from earlier cells

division passes hereditary information

all life energy flow occurs in cells

prokaryotic cell

no nucleus

DNA in clusters (nucleo region)

1-5 microns

eukaryotic cell

has nucleus with DNA

10-100 microns

cellulose

makes up cell walls

metabolic demands

cell size is limited because of

transcription

DNA is copied to RNA

translation

RNA to proteins

3 basic parts of cells

membrane- flexible outer boundary, made of phopholipids

cytoplasm- inner fluid

nucleus- control center

central vacuole

full of water, makes plants grow

plasmademata

holes in cell wall of plant

nucleus

has 2 bilayerrs

has pores that allow passage, proteins to regulate

nucleolus

produces ribosomal DNA

Rough ER

protein synthesis

smooth ER

detoxfication, enzymes, metabolism, synthesizes lipids

Golgi Apparatus

Post office (package proteins)

cis side faces ER, receives

Trans side ships

nascent

new proteins are

same

the rate of diffusion is the _____ regardless of cell size

Lysosome

digestive enzymes

phagocytosis

cell eating

peroxisomes

contains h2o2

removes hydrogen atoms from various substances and transfers them to water

vacuole

hase diverse cell maintenance functions

forms food through phagocytosis

pumps out excess water

has organic compounds and water

plastids

double membrane, stores food, plants (chloroplasts, mitochondria)

have their own dna, ribosomes, make own proteins

Endosymbiant theory

a cell “ate” a mitochondrion but didn’t kill it

circular

prokaryots have _____ DNA

cytoskeleton

support, movement, shape,

microtubules

largest cytoskeleton part

acts as a “railroad”

hollow tubes

cell division,

intermediate filaments

middle sized

anchors organelles, form nuclear lamina

keratins

microfilaments

smallest

actin

motility

2 strands wound together

resists changes in shape

cillia and flagella

assists in movement/direction

primary

thin flexible cell wall

mid lamella

glue of cell wall

secondary

thicker more supportive cell wall

extracellular matrix (ECM)

found between cells

proteoglycanes

carb and protein

tight

junction where membranes are pressed together, prevents EC fluid leakage

desmosome

junction that is anchoring; fastens cells together

gap

junction that provides communication; channels between cells; pores

selective permeability

the plasma membrane has

fluid mosaic model

the membrane is fluid w/ many moving structures

upregulate or downregulate

inserts/takes away necessary things

cholesterol

affects fluidity of membrane; solidifies (holds together) when warm and prevents packing when cool

more fluid

unsaturated fats in membrane means the membrane is

lipid rafts

20 percent of outer membrane surface; provides stable platforms; phospho, sphingo, chol

peripheral

proteins bound to surface

integral

proteins embedded in hydrophobic core

transmembrane

protein that spans the membrane

ampiphatic

has both hydrophilic and phobic parts

major functions of proteins

transport, enzymes, signal, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attach to cytoskeleton and ECM, regulate molecular traffic