Exam 3 Study Guide: Attitudes, Conformity, and Groups

Attitude

Favorable or unfavorable evaluations of people, objects and ideas, exhibited in one's affect, behaviors, and/or cognitions

Tripartite Model of Attitudes

A model that includes affectively-based attitudes, behaviorally-based attitudes, and cognitively-based attitudes.

Affectively-based attitudes

Attitudes based more on feelings and values.

Behaviorally-based attitudes

Attitudes based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object (self-perception theory).

Cognitively-based attitudes

Attitudes based primarily on one's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object; logical.

Ambivalent attitude

Mixed positive and negative evaluations.

Classical conditioning

Stimulus that elicits a natural response is paired with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus takes on the response of the first stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Behaviors people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by reinforcement or punishment.

Mere exposure

Repeated exposure to something leads to positive attitudes.

Imitation and modeling

A fundamental way of how people learn; we learn by imitation and modeling is how we learn consequences of some behaviors that we see others do.

Socialization

Through interacting with others, we learn typical social norms, and we learn values and social behaviors.

Explicit attitudes

Consciously endorse and easily report.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are not consciously endorsed and may not be easily reported.

Measurement of attitudes

Social psychologists measure attitudes through surveys and other methods.

Social desirability concerns

Issues that arise when people hide their true feelings or beliefs due to social pressures.

Scale design

The way questions are structured in surveys that can affect responses.

Introspection

The process of examining one's own thoughts and feelings, which can be unreliable.

Controllable behaviors

Behaviors that can be predicted by explicit attitudes, such as comments made or choosing partners.

Example of affectively-based attitude

Fear of spiders.

Example of behaviorally-based attitude

Screaming or stomping on spiders.

Example of cognitively-based attitude

Believing that spiders are dangerous.

Example of ambivalent attitude

Having mixed feelings about a political candidate.

Example of classical conditioning

A dog salivating when it hears a bell that has been paired with food.

Example of operant conditioning

A child receiving praise for cleaning their room, leading to more frequent cleaning.

Implicit attitudes

Involuntary, uncontrollable, often unconscious attitudes.

Physiological measures

Measures that assess heart rate, perspiration, etc.

Behavioral measures

Measures that observe avoidance in real or simulated situations.

Cognition

Implicit association tests (IATs) that measure the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations.

IAT

Measures the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations, with faster reaction times indicating closer associations.

Facilitation

Quicker to respond if your evaluation of the attitude object matches that of the word.

Inhibition

Slower to respond if your evaluation of the attitude object conflicts with or mismatches that of the word.

Automatic behaviors

Behaviors predicted by implicit attitudes, such as eye blinks, speech errors, and body posture.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

A model stating that persuasion occurs through central and peripheral routes.

Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM)

A model stating that persuasion occurs through systematic processing and heuristic processing.

Central/systematic processing

Thoughtful, deep processing that occurs when there is ability and motivation, focusing on the quality of the message argument.

Peripheral/heuristic processing

Thoughtless, shallow processing that occurs when there is a lack of ability or motivation, focusing on quick heuristics or surface level cues.

Factors affecting central/systematic processing

Cognitive load, message complexity, knowledge, or intelligence.

Factors affecting motivation for central/systematic processing

Need for closure, need for cognition, personal relevance.

Source factors in persuasion

Refers to the 'who' in the persuasion process.

Source credibility

Influences persuasion by providing expertise and trustworthiness.

Source likeability

Influences persuasion by showing similarity and attractiveness.

Sleeper effects

Messages from non-credible sources that initially exert little influence but later shift individual attitudes as the source is forgotten.

Receiver factors in persuasion

Factors such as personal relevance, mood, intelligence, and culture that influence persuasion.

Mood effects on persuasion

Good mood leads to being laid back and less critical, while bad mood leads to being on edge and more skeptical.

Message factors in persuasion

Characteristics of the message that influence persuasion, such as quality, length, vividness, and fear.

Fear-based persuasive message

An effective advertising strategy that emphasizes harmful consequences, generates moderate fear, and provides information on reducing fear.

Subliminal advertising

Words or pictures not consciously perceived that supposedly influence judgments, attitudes, and behaviors, with no evidence of effectiveness.

Psychological reactance

The negative evaluation of a message/source when persuasion feels manipulative, leading to opposite behavior.

Attitude inoculation

A strategy to protect attitudes from change by exposing individuals to weak counterarguments.

Social influence

The effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of others have on our thoughts, feelings and behaviors

Three levels of social influence

Conformity, compliance, obedience

Conformity

Changing ones behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people

Informational social influence

We see others as a source of information; we watch and learn from others' behavior; we conform because we believe the person is correct

Core motivation for informational social influence

The need to be accurate

Private acceptance vs public compliance (informational)

Leads to private acceptance: true, permanent belief/behavior change

Situational factors for informational social influence

When the situation is ambiguous, when the situation is a crisis, when other people are experts

Normative social influence

We see others as a source of validation; we conform to be liked and accepted by others (and to avoid negative social consequences)

Core motivation for normative social influence

Need for self esteem

Private acceptance vs public compliance (normative)

Public compliance

Situational factors for normative social influence

The strength/importance of the group, number/group size, immediacy, unanimity, culture

Resistance to normative influence

Be aware it is operating; have an ally; conform most of the time to gain idiosyncrasy credits

Autokinetic illusion study

It was an ambiguous situation; subjects gradually made use of others responses as social information; when asked in private, people still gave estimates that conformed to the group estimates; demonstrates private acceptance

Social norms

Rules and standards (explicit or implicit) that are understood by members of a group and that guide behavior without the force of laws

Explicit norms

Directly communicated rules

Implicit norms

Indirectly communicated rules

Injunctive norms

What people perceive they should or shouldn't do, think or feel

Descriptive norms

What people actually do, think or feel

Line perception study

People look to others when in doubt; resulted in public compliance

Conformity process

Automatically (a lot of the time)

Compliance

Changing one's behavior in response to a direct request

Six principles of compliance

Liking, consistency, reciprocity, authority

Liking principle

Should I comply? (yes, if I like the person); why? (we believe we should help our friends and people we like)

Consistency principle

Should I comply? (yes, if I have behaved similarly in the past or given a commitment); why? (I act consistent ways to avoid dissonance)

Reciprocity principle

Should I comply? (yes, if they've done something for me first); why? (if someone does something nice for me, I need to do something nice for them)

Authority principle

Should I comply? (yes, if the person asking is an authority/expert); why? (informational social influence)

Misusing titles

Using inappropriate titles such as 'Dr' or 'Sir' to gain social status.

High status clothing

Wearing clothing like a suit and tie or lab coat to convey authority or status.

Social validation

The tendency to comply with others' behaviors when they are also complying.

Normative social influence

Conforming to the expectations of others to be accepted or liked.

Informational social influence

Conforming because we believe others have accurate information.

Salting the tip jar

A technique used to increase tips by making it seem like others are contributing.

Scarcity

The principle that people value things more when they are perceived as scarce.

Limited time offer

A marketing tactic that creates urgency by limiting the availability of an offer.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance strategy where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request.

Door-in-the-face technique

A compliance strategy that involves making a large request that is rejected, followed by a smaller request that is accepted.

Obedience

Changing one's behavior in response to an order from an authority figure.

Milgram obedience study

An experiment where participants were instructed to administer shocks to an informant.

Percentage of obedience in Milgram study

Over 60% of participants obeyed the experimenter all the way to the 450 volt level.

Changes to reduce obedience

Placing the participant and learner in the same room and requiring the participant to touch the learner to administer shocks.

Changes to increase obedience

Having prompts come from another teacher or having two experimenters disagree.

Ethical violations in Milgram studies

Participants experienced emotional harm and deception was used.

Jerry Burger's modifications

Changes made to the Milgram study to enhance ethical standards.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A psychological study that examined the effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment.

Ethical violations in Stanford Prison Experiment

Included lack of informed consent, psychological harm, and failure to protect participants.

Findings about Stanford Prison Experiment

Participants were encouraged to act aggressively and the study was manipulated to be abusive.

Definition of a group

Two or more people who interact and are interdependent, influencing each other's needs and goals.

Reasons for joining groups

People join groups for social support, shared goals, and a sense of belonging.

Informational social influence

Provides information (satisfies need for accuracy)

Identity development

Helps us define ourselves (we conform to group norms and attitudes)

Normative social influence

Enhances self esteem (satisfies need for self esteem - associating with groups can enhance self esteem, and satisfies need to be liked/accepted)