Psychology: Key Concepts in Social Perception, Attitudes, and Group Behavior

Person perception

The process of forming impressions about other people. It uses cues like appearance, behavior, and context.

Attribution theory

Explains how people interpret the causes of behavior. We decide if actions are due to internal traits or external situations.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate personality causes for others' behavior. We underestimate situational factors.

Actor-observer bias

We explain our own behavior with situations. We explain others' behavior with their personality.

Prejudice

An unjustified negative attitude toward a group. It is usually based on stereotypes.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people. It may not be accurate for every individual.

Discrimination

Unjustified behavior toward a group. It involves acting on prejudice.

Explicit vs. Implicit

Explicit attitudes are conscious and controlled. Implicit attitudes are automatic and unconscious.

Just-world phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve. It leads to blaming victims for their problems.

Social identity

A person's sense of self based on group membership. It includes groups like race, gender, or school.

Outgroup vs. Ingroup bias

Ingroup bias favors your own group. Outgroup bias views other groups more negatively.

Scapegoat theory

Blaming another group for problems. It often happens when people feel frustrated or threatened.

Other-race effect

The tendency to recognize faces of your own race more easily. Faces of other races are harder to distinguish.

Attitudes

Feelings and beliefs about a person, object, or idea. They can influence behavior.

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Agreeing to a small request makes you more likely to agree to a larger one. It is used in persuasion.

Role

A set of expectations about behavior in a social position. People often act according to their roles.

Cognitive dissonance theory

We feel discomfort when our actions and beliefs conflict. We change attitudes or behavior to reduce it.

Peripheral route persuasion

Persuasion using cues like attractiveness or emotions. It leads to temporary attitude change.

Central route

Persuasion based on strong arguments and careful thinking. It leads to long-lasting attitude change.

(Social) norms

Rules for expected behavior in a group. They guide how people act in social situations.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group. It is often influenced by social pressure.

Normative social influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection. It is driven by the desire to fit in.

Informational social influence

Conforming because others are seen as correct. It happens in uncertain situations.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure. It often occurs even if it conflicts with personal beliefs.

Social facilitation

Improved performance when others are present. It happens on simple or well-learned tasks.

Social loafing

Reduced effort when working in a group. People feel less responsible for the outcome.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in a group. This can lead to impulsive or harmful behavior.

Group polarization

Group discussions strengthen members' original opinions. The group becomes more extreme.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions. Members ignore alternatives and critical thinking.

Culture

Shared beliefs, values, and behaviors of a group. It is passed from one generation to another.

Individualistic vs. Collectivistic cultures

Individualistic cultures value personal goals and independence. Collectivistic cultures value group goals and cooperation.

Frustration-aggression principle

Frustration creates anger. This can lead to aggressive behavior.

Social script

Culturally learned expectations for behavior in situations. It guides how people act.

Aggression (biopsychosocial)

Behavior intended to harm others. It is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

Mere exposure effect

Repeated exposure increases liking. Familiar things feel more comfortable.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for others' well-being. It involves helping without expecting reward.

Bystander effect

People are less likely to help in a group. Responsibility is spread among others.

Social exchange theory

People help when benefits outweigh costs. Decisions are based on rewards.

Reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will return help. We help those who have helped us.

Social responsibility norm

Belief that we should help those in need. It applies even without benefit to ourselves.

Social trap

A situation where self-interest harms everyone. Short-term gains lead to long-term loss.

Mirror-image perceptions

Conflicting groups see each other as the enemy. Each believes the other is wrong.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations influence behavior to make them come true. Beliefs shape outcomes.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation. They reduce conflict between groups.