BIOPSYCHOLOGY

Microglia (DEF)

Type of glial cells

Microglia (RESPONSE)

Multiply, engulf debris, trigger inflammation

Astrocytes (DEF)

Class of glial cells

Astrocytes (CHARACTERISTICS)

Larger, star-shaped extensions

Astrocytes (LOCATION)

Cover blood vessels, contact neuron cell bodies

Changing View of Astrocytes (TRADITIONS)

Mere support cells for neurons

Changing View of Astrocytes (UPDATED KNOWLEDGE)

Signal reception, synapse control, neural modulation, axon function maintenance, glial circuit participation

Neuroanatomical Techniques (TECH)

Golgi stain

Neuroanatomical Techniques (PURPOSE)

Visualize individual neurons

Neuroanatomical Techniques (RESULT)

Neurons stained black

Neuroanatomical Techniques (APPLICATION)

Studying overall shape

Blood-Brain Barrier (DEF)

Specialized structure formed by tightly packed cells of cerebral blood vessel walls

Blood-Brain Barrier (FUNCTION)

Limits passage of molecules into the brain

Blood-Brain Barrier and Essential Molecules (PERMIT TRANSPORT OF)

Glucose (large molecules essential for brain function)

Drug Influence on Brain Activity

Penetration of blood-brain barrier affects drug influence on brain activity

Selective Permeability of Blood Vessels

Some brain areas allow passage of certain large molecules

Components of Nervous System

* Brain and spinal cord form the nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (DEF)

Regulates internal environment

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (LOCATION)

Part of peripheral nervous system

Efferent Nerves (DEF)

Carry signals away from structures (e.g., CNS)

Efferent Nerves (FUNCTION)

Transmit signals to peripheral tissues or organs

Sympathetic System (LOCATION)

Nerves from thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord

Sympathetic System (ROLE)

Part of ANS, responsible for stimulating and mobilizing energy resources in threatening situations

Vagus Nerves

Longest cranial nerves

Purely Sensory Cranial Nerves (EXAMPLE)

Olfactory nerves, optic nerves

Innermost Meninges

Pia mater

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) (LOCATION()

Cerebral ventricles, central canal, subarachnoid space

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) (PRODUCTION)

Choroid plexuses continuously produce CSF

Hydrocephalus and Cerebral Aqueduct (CONDITION)

Tumor near cerebral aqueduct can cause hydrocephalus

Blood-Brain Barrier and Large Molecules (FUNCTION)

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8. Blocks entry of many large molecules from circulatory system into brain tissue

Metencephalon (DEF)

Brain division including pons and cerebellum

Pons (DESCRIPTION)

Bulge on ventral surface of brain stem

Pons (LOCATION)

Part of metencephalon

Cerebellum (DESCRIPTION)

Large, convoluted structure on dorsal surface of brain stem

Functions of Cerebellum (ROLE)

Important sensorimotor structure

Functions of Cerebellum (FUNCTION)

Precise movement control, adaptation to changing conditions

Effects of Cerebellum Damage

Deficits in movement control and cognitive functions (e.g., decision making, language use)

Metencephalon Components

Pons and cerebellum

Myelencephalon (DEF)

Another brain division

Myelencephalon (STRUCTURES)

Includes medulla, ascending and descending tracts, part of reticular formation

Reticular Formation (DECRIPTION)

Complex network of neurons

Reticular Formation (FUNCTION)

Regulates arousal and attention

Myelencephalon Structures (LOCATION)

Brain stem, including medulla

Major Structures of Myelencephalon and Metencephalon (7)

* Superior and inferior colliculi
* Periaqueductal gray
* Cerebral aqueduct
* Tectum
* Tegmentum
* Red nucleus
* Substantia nigra

Neurons and Glial Cells (CATEGORISATION)

Primary cell types of the nervous system

Neurons (SPECIALIZATION)

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Receiving, conducting, and transmitting electrochemical signals

Neuronal Diversity

Neurons exhibit a wide range of shapes and sizes

External Features of a Neuron (8)

* Cell body or soma
* Dendrites
* Axon hillock
* Axon
* Buttons
* Synapses
* Nodes of Ranvier
* Cell membrane

Internal Structures of a Neuron (9)

* Endoplasmic reticulum
* Cytoplasm
* Ribosomes
* Golgi complex
* Nucleus
* Mitochondria
* Microtubules
* Synaptic vesicles
* Neurotransmitters

Endoplasmic Reticulum (FUNCTION)

Role in protein and fat synthesis

Ribosomes (FUNCTION)

Involved in protein synthesis

Golgi Complex (FUNCTION)

Packages molecules in vesicles

Nucleus (DECRIPTION)

Spherical structure containing DNA in the cell body

Mitochondria (FUNCTION)

Sites of energy production

Microtubules (FUNCTION)

Responsible for rapid transport within neurons

Synaptic Vesicles (FUNCTION)

Store neurotransmitter molecules for release

Neurotransmitters (DEF)

Molecules released by active neurons to influence other cells

Synaptic Transmission (PROCESS)

Chemical transmission of signals between neurons

Synaptic Transmission (INVOLES)

Release and binding of neurotransmitter molecules

Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters (DESCRIPTION)

Synthesized and packaged in the cytoplasm of terminal buttons

Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters (LOCATION)

Stored in vesicles near the presynaptic membrane

Neuropeptides

* Larger neurotransmitters
* Assembled in the cell body
* Transported to the terminal buttons

Release of Neurotransmitter Molecules (PROCESS)

Exocytosis

Noradrenergic Nerve Fibers (NEUROTRANSMITTERS)

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

Noradrenergic Nerve Fibers (STORAGE)

High concentrations and released into extracellular fluid

Acetylcholine (Ach) (INVOLVMENT)

Neuromuscular junctions, autonomic nervous system synapses, and central nervous system synapses

Acetylcholine (Ach) (ENZYME)

Breakdown by acetylcholinesterase

Neuropeptides (DEF)

Diverse group of neurotransmitters

Neuropeptides (FUNCTION)

Multiple capacities, categorized into groups like pituitary peptides, hypothalamic peptides, brain-gut peptides, opioid peptides, and miscellaneous peptides

X-ray limitations

Brain structures have similar abilities to absorb X-rays

Contrast X-ray techniques

Injecting substances for enhanced contrast

Cerebral Angiography (4)

* Contrast X-ray technique
* Injection of radio-opaque dye into cerebral artery
* Visualize cerebral circulatory system
* Useful for localizing vascular damage or identifying tumor location

Computed Tomography (CT) (4)

* Revolutionized study of living human brain in early 1970s
* Computer-assisted X-ray procedure
* Visualizes brain and internal structures
* Patient's head positioned in a large cylinder for detailed images

Traditional Brain Imaging Techniques (3)

* PET, fMRI, and magnetoencephalography (MEG)
* Show correlations between brain activity and cognitive activity
* Cannot prove causation

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) (2)

* Technique to disrupt brain activity temporarily
* Creates magnetic field near the skull

TMS and Investigating Causal Relationships (3)

* Assess effects of brain disruption on cognition and behavior
* Investigate causal relationships between brain activity and cognitive functions

Psychophysiological Recording Methods (2)

Measure physiological activity from the body surface

Five widely studied measures: scalp EEG, muscle tension, eye movement, skin conductance, and cardiovascular activity

. Electroencephalography (EEG) (2)

* Measure of electrical activity of the brain
* Studies different states of consciousness and cerebral pathology

Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) (2)

* Waves accompanying specific psychological events in EEG
* Analyze EEG using ERPs

Signal Averaging (2)

* Reduce background noise in EEG recordings
* Enhance detection of evoked potentials

Improved Spatial Resolution of EEG (2)

* Advanced computer software and multiple electrodes
* Localize signal sources

Muscle Tension Measurement

* Assess muscle activity and contraction

Typical EEG Waveforms and Psychological Correlates (2)

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* Alpha waves associated with relaxed wakefulness
* Sensory evoked potentials

EEG Combined with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Represent EEG signal distribution on structural cerebral MRI scan

Chromosomes and Genes (4)

* Genes located on chromosomes in the nucleus
* Chromosomes occur in pairs
* Each species has a characteristic number of chromosome pairs
* Genes controlling a trait located on the same location on a pair of chromosomes

Meiosis and Genetic Diversity (3)

* Meiosis produces gametes (egg and sperm cells)
* Chromosomes divide, one of each pair goes to each gamete
* Contributes to genetic diversity through random division of chromosome pairs and genetic material exchange through crossover

Structure of Chromosomes (3)

* Double-stranded DNA molecules
* Each strand contains a sequence of nucleotide bases
* Two strands are bonded together and exact complements of each other

DNA Replication and Mutations (3)

* Replication: DNA duplicating before cell division
* Errors or mutations can occur during replication
* Most mutations disappear from gene pool, but some increase fitness and contribute to evolution

Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Traits (4)

* X and Y chromosomes determine individual's sex
* Genes on sex chromosomes influence sex-linked traits
* Dominant sex-linked traits occur more frequently in females
* Recessive sex-linked traits occur more frequently in males

The Genetic Code (2)

* Determined by sequence of nucleotide bases on chromosomes
* Constitutes the code of our language

Gene Expression (2)

* Process using genetic information to create specific traits
* Characteristics of an organism are a result of gene expression

Enhancers and Promoters (4)

* Enhancers are stretches of DNA that control gene expression
* Determine protein synthesis and its rate
* Act like switches to regulate genes
* Transcription factors bind to DNA and influence gene expression

Gene Expression and Transcription (4)

* Gene expression involves DNA transcription into RNA
* Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic code to cytoplasm
* Transcription factors influence gene expression
* mRNA attaches to ribosomes for protein synthesis

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (2)

* Mitochondria contain mtDNA inherited solely from the mother
* Mitochondria are energy-generating structures in cells

Mutations in mtDNA and Evolutionary Clock (2)

* Mutations in mtDNA occur at a consistent rate
* Used as an evolutionary clock to study migration and evolution

The Human Genome Project (3)

* Completed in 2001
* Mapped sequence of all 3 billion bases in human chromosomes
* Significantly advanced genetics research

Human Genes and Protein-Encoding Genes (2)

* Humans have around 20,000 genes
* Protein-encoding genes constitute only about 2% of human DNA

Non-Gene DNA and Epigenetics (3)

* Active nongene DNA influences gene expression
* Epigenetics studies mechanisms that influence gene expression without changing genes themselves
* Control of structural gene expression by nongene DNA regions

MicroRNAs and Gene Expression (2)

* MicroRNAs are short single strands of RNA
* Have major effects on gene expression and brain development

Alternative Splicing (2)

* One gene can encode multiple proteins
* Challenges the assumption of one gene-one protein