unit 3 psych

sensation

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 158)

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 160)

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 161)

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 162)

absolute threshold

threshold the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 163)

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 163)

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 163)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 165, 345)

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 165)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 165)

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 169)

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 177)

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 177)

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 177)

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 177)

accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 177, 498)

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 178)

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 178)

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 178)

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 179)

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 179)

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 181)

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 182)

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 187)

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 187)

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 188)

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 189)

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 189)

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 189)

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 189)

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 190)

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 190)

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 191)

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 192)

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 195)

audition

the sense or act of hearing. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 198)

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 198)

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 198)

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 199)

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 200)

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 200)

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 202)

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 202)

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 207)

olfaction

the sense of smell. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 211)

kinesthesia

our movement sense—our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body arts. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 213)

vestibular sense

our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 213)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 214)

schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

convergence

a binocular depth cue where both eyes move inwards to focus on a nearby object,

Relative clarity

a monocular depth cue where objects that appear sharp and clear are perceived as closer than objects that appear hazy or blurry.

Relative size

a monocular depth cue where we perceive the distance of an object based on how its size compares to other objects of a similar known size

Texture gradient

a monocular depth cue where objects appear to have a finer, less detailed texture as they get further away, providing a perception of depth and distance

Linear perspective

a visual cue that helps us perceive depth by making parallel lines appear to converge at a point in the distance, creating the illusion that objects are getting farther away

Interposition

a monocular depth cue where one object partially overlaps another, causing the viewer to perceive the overlapped object as farther away

Pheromones

chemical signals released by animals, including humans, that can influence the behavior or physiology of other members of the same species, typically detected through the sense of smell

Gustation

sense of taste- the mouth's ability to tell the difference between sweet, sour, bitter , and salty properties.

Taste receptors

specialized cells located within taste buds on the tongue and other areas of the mouth that detect chemicals in food and drink, allowing us to perceive different tastes

Semicircular canals

three fluid-filled tubes located within the inner ear, responsible for our sense of balance and orientation, also known as the vestibular sense

Synesthesia

a neurological condition that causes one sense to trigger another sense. or example, when somebody says they can taste a color.

Nearsightedness

a visual condition where a person can see close objects clearly but distant objects appear blurry because the light focuses in front of the retina instead of directly on it

Farsightedness

a visual condition where a person has difficulty focusing on nearby objects due to the light focusing behind the retina, while distant objects appear clear

Photoreceptors

specialized light-sensitive cells located in the retina of the eye that convert light energy into electrical signals, allowing the brain to interpret visual information; the two main types are rods (for low-light vision) and cones (for color vision).

Pitch perception

the ability to perceive and distinguish different frequencies of sound

Amplitude

the height or intensity of a wave

Afterimages

a visual sensation that persists even after the original stimulus has been removed, often appearing in complementary colors to the original image due to the adaptation of the eye's photoreceptor cells; this phenomenon is primarily explained by the Opponent Process Theory of color vision.

Ganglion cells

specialized neurons located in the retina of the eye that receive signals from bipolar cells and transmit visual information to the brain through their axons

Dichromatism

a condition where a person only has two functioning cone types in their eyes, resulting in limited color vision.

Monochromatism

a condition where a person can only see shades of one color, meaning they lack the ability to perceive different colors due to only having one type of cone photoreceptor in their eyes.

Prosopagnosia

a neurological condition where a person is unable to recognize familiar faces, also commonly known as "face blindness," despite having normal vision

Blindsight

neurological condition where a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them

Volley theory

The principle that relates the experience of pitch to the alternating firing of groups neurons along the basilar membrane.

Sound localization

the ability to identify the direction or origin of a sound source, primarily achieved by the brain interpreting differences in the timing and intensity of sound reaching each ear, allowing us to pinpoint where a sound is coming from

Cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on a single conversation or voice in a noisy environment by selectively attending to one specific sound while filtering out other surrounding noises

Closure

a Gestalt principle that describes the tendency for our brains to fill in missing information or gaps in a visual pattern to perceive a complete, whole image, even when parts are missing

Proximity

Gestalt principle that states objects that are physically close together are perceived as belonging to the same group

Similarity

the Gestalt principle that states people tend to group objects that share similar characteristics together, perceiving them as a single unit