learning theories, stages of learning, guidance, feedback, memory models

learning theories, stages of learning, guidance

Operant conditioning

learning using trial and error and conditioning the most effective response through practice

reinforcement

Anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur

behaviourist theories

They are based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. The conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Our responses to the environment shape our actions.

B.F Skinner

Observed rats in a box with a bar which could be pressed to obtain food, rats quickly learnt that they gained a reward, so this behaviour was reinforced

satisfier

an action that gives a pleasant feeling so that the response is likely to repeated

annoyer

an action that creates disappointment and unease, meaning that the incorrect response is avoided in future.

positive reinforcement

Involves an additional, pleasant stimulus which increases likelihood that behaviour will happen again as a favourable event or outcome occurs after behaviour. E.g. a coach giving a sweet to a tennis player when their serve lands in

negative reinforcement

 

Removal of a negative or unpleasant stimulus after correct response in order to strengthen a behaviour and avoid an unpleasant situation e.g. taking a negative criticism away when action is performed appropriately.

punishment

Involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus to weaken behaviour and prevent unsuccessful action from happening again e.g. getting sent off for foul play. The action should not be repeated due to the punishment received.

thorndike’s laws

developed to help strengthen the SR bond when using operant conditioning

law of exercise

skills improve through training so you train with more focus  e.g. doing 100 netball shots a day every day

law of effect

positive outcome or satisfaction from practice makes you continue e.g. once they start scoring the shots consistently, they will gain more confidence and motivation and so will keep going

law of readiness

you need to be physically and mentally strong enough to do the skill you are practicing or learning   e.g. they must be strong enough and coordinated enough to shoot the ball into the hoop.

cognitive theory of learning

A Gestaltist view of learning where a skill should be learnt in its entirety using whole practice.

insight learning

This is using problem solving and using memory of effective experiences to solve a new challenge.

intervening variables

These are the mental processes involved in decision making

advantages of cognitive theory of learning

• Performer can become more independent and self correct during a game

• They can adapt better to situations

• They could make quick progress

• They develop a kinaesthetic feel

disadvantages of cognitive theory of learning

• Using whole practise might be a problem if the skill is too difficult or dangerous or if the performer is a beginner.

• Learning could be slower if the performer doesn’t understand what to do and therefore might lose motivation

• They might not have any past experiences to draw on.

social/observational learning

Based on watching and copying behaviour and social interactions from significant others. ( based on banduras 4 processes)

attention

the performer must be paying attention to the demonstration - amount of attention paid will be influenced by the perceived attractiveness or competence of the model

retention

the performer must be able to remember the demonstration - creating a mental picture in their head

motor reproduction

the performer must be physically and mentally able to carry out the skill being demonstrated- demonstrations must therefore be matched to the capabilities of the learner

motivation

the performer needs to want to carry out the skill - external reinforcement will increase motivation

significant others

these are people who are role models to us. They are important to us and therefore we are more likely to pay attention to them and copy their behaviour.

cueing

 identifying important cues or stimuli for example watching the arms of your opponent when receiving a serve in tennis.

cognitive stage of learning

 First stage of learning - lots of trial and error, meaning lots of mistakes, movement is jerky, uncoordinated and inconsistent, lack of fluency and needs extrinsic input as lack of kinesthesis.

associative stage of learning

Second stage of learning - reduction in mistakes and trial and error. Movement is becoming more fluent and consistent. Performer is developing kinesthesis, tends to be the longest phase of learning and some will never leave it

autonomous stage of learning

Third stage of learning -  movement is fluent, accurate and habitual ( can be performed in range of environments), little to no conscious thought about the movement, instead attention can be given to tactics and adaptations.

things a coach/ teacher could use

Positive feedback or reinforcement

Allowing lots of time to practise

Helping performers to understand what went wrong by identifying aspects of the performance that they need to improve and helping them to be able to feel this themselves

Giving lots of verbal guidance to highlight key parts of the skill

Physically supporting them through the skill to reduce the aspect of fear.

grooved

a skill that is over learnt

verbal guidance

telling a performer how to perform the skill

verbal guidance strengths

• More effective for associative/autonomous learners as they know more specific terminology

• Questioning techniques can lead to more efficient learning

• Can be motivational and give confidence

• Can be quick

• Can be used during Matchplay

verbal guidance weaknesses

• If inaccurate, it can lead to incorrect performance

• Can be too much for the performer of a beginner and therefore not effective in cognitive stage of learning

• Can lead to information overload

• Can be boring

• Can be confusing if sport specific terminology is not known

visual guidance

showing a performer how to perform a skill

visual guidance strengths

• Helps the performer create a mental image

• Helpful for beginners as it breaks the skill down and shows how to successfully complete

• Encourages observational learning

• Gives better understanding of the skill -> good for cognitive learners

• Is more effective if done by a role model

visual guidance weaknesses

• Demonstration could be inaccurate or aimed at wrong level of performance

• May be too quick for performer to process

• Static images don’t show how the movement is produced

• Demonstration could be unclear to the performer - so is best combined with verbal guidance.

mechanical guidance

using aids or equipment

mechanical guidance strengths

• Can reduce fear

• Can help performer carry out complete or dangerous skills to build confidence and motivation to get over fear

• Can be used to isolate part of the skill to practice or develop

• Can be useful for all stages of learning

mechanical guidance weaknesses

• Performer may become too reliant and not develop ability to complete the skill independently

• Can lead to a false sense of kinaesthesis

• Can restrict the performer so that they are not fully able to perform the skill

manual guidance

using physical support from another person e.g. coach

manual guidance strengths

• Can reduce fear

• Can improve confidence and motivation

• Can give a clearer understanding of how to perform the skill

• Can be used to practice or isolate a particular part of the skill to improve

manual guidance weaknesses

• Proximity of coach may be uncomfortable for performer

• Performer may become too reliant on the support and not fully participate in performing the skill when practicing it which could reduce motivation

intrinsic feedback

 type of continuous feedback that comes from the proprioceptors - nerve receptors found in muscles, ligaments and joints that pick up movement information

extrinsic feedback

feedback that comes from external sources - for example, from a teacher or from a coach.

positive feedback

reinforces skill learning and gives information about a successful outcome

negative feedback

information about an unsuccessful outcome, which can be used to build more successful strategies.

knowledge of results

a type of terminal feedback that gives the performer information about the end result of the response

knowledge of performance

information about how well the movement is being executed, rather than the end result.

performance

a temporary measurement which can alter from time to time. It differs from the term learning in that learning is relatively more permanent.

Intrinsic feedback positives

• Readily available

• Movements can be altered immediately

• Good for elites as they have knowledge of technique 

• Performers in autonomous stage are likely to have accurate intrinsic feedback

Intrinsic feedback negatives

• May be inaccurate if performer is in cognitive stage

• Depending on sensory effectiveness they may not be able to gain as much information from the feel of a movement

• If the performer is overly critical of themselves then the feedback may not be reliable

Extrinsic feedback positives

• Good for players in cognitive stage

• Knowledgeable coaches can provide important and effect feedback

• Unbiased, outside perspective

Extrinsic feedback negatives

• A coach who is not knowledgeable may provide incorrect advice

• Not readily available in all sports

• Does not encourage as much kinaesthetic awareness as intrinsic

 

Positive feedback positives

• Motivating

• Good for beginners

• Reinforces kinaesthetic feel

• Helps build self-esteem

• Can lead to positive reinforcement which strengthens S-R bond

Positive feedback negatives

• Performer may become complacent

• If undeserved, performer may be building inappropriate S-R bond

 

Negative feedback positives

• Some performers are motivated by it

• Good for elites

• Clear about which aspects of performance need improving

• Good for refining skills

Negative feedback negatives

• Can be demotivating

• Not as good for beginners

• If inaccurate of unfounded may hinder learning process

Knowledge of performance positives

• Personal feedback

• End result is irrelevant

• Motivating

Knowledge of performance negatives

• May not be representative of end result

• Can be hard to separate from overall outcome

Knowledge of results positives

• Clear feedback

• Readily available

• Easy to set goals

• Easy to track progress

Knowledge of results Negatives

• May not reflect individual performance

• Can be demotivating

 

Atkinsons and shiffren multi store model

model explains the process of how we remember information.

Selective attention

focus on relevant information which is filtered through to short term memory and discard irrelevant information + forget it.

Encoding and decoding

information is passes into the long term memory through he process of encoding and sent back to the short term memory via decoding.

Sensory memory

• Selective attention happens here

• Capacity of this store is large

• Only filters information for up to 1 second

Short term memory

• This is the workspace of memory as info is processed

• Can only store 5-9 pieces of information

• Stores it for up to 30 seconds

• Info is organised ( chunking ) and processed

• Comparison is made with long term memory and response is selected to put into action via a motor programme

Long term memory

• Limitless capacity

• Holds info for long periods of time

• Meaningless info not stored, only stored if rehearsed

• Info is encoded to store in LTM and decoded to send back to STM for action

• If the skill is more rehearsed it becomes more recognisable and automatic

Memory trace

when the index cells retain or store information

Multi store memory model advantages

• Simplifies the memory process to aid understanding

• Explains how those with brain damage may have dysfunctional memory or amnesia, showing distinction between short + long term memory

Multi store memory model disadvantages

•  Too simplified - doesn’t explain why we remember different types of information

• Does not effectively prove the distinction between short term and long term memory and does not effectively explain their interaction

Craig and Lockhart levels of processing model -

examines how memory works and considers what we do with information and how we process it, as opposed to store it. The deeper the information is processed, the more likely we are to remember it.

What must info be to be remembered

Considered, understood, and have meaning.

Semantic

this considers the actual meaning of the information and is the deepest form of processing

 

Phonetic

this level is processing the way words sound and is a deeper level of processing than structural

 

Structural

this is paying attention to what the words look like and is a shallow level of processing

Advantages of levels of processing models

• Explains well that if we understood some information, we are more likely to remember it - coaches often state that they understand the skills more as they have to explain its skills

• Explains well that the longer we consider and analyse information, the more we remember that information

Disadvantages of levels of processing models

• The longer time it takes to process information does not always lead to better recall. So depth of processing does buy always help us to remember

• Difficulty in defining what ‘deep’ processing actually involves.

• Does not take into account individual differences. E.g. why do those who show more determination sometimes forget basic skills? And why do people who pay less attention to the coach perform better?

Ways to improve memory - rehearsal

This can be useful for retrieval of information in both short + long term memory, as seen in multi store model

Ways to improve memory - meaningfullness

The more the info is seen as relevant, the more likely we are to remember it, as shown in levels of processing model

Ways to improve memory - association

If new info is linked to old info, its more likely to be remembered, thus associating it with something already known

Ways to improve memory - avoiding overload

Any new info must be allowed to sink in, to avoid potential confusion,.

Ways to improve memory - organising info

Checking can expand the short term memory store. Complex info should be grouped to aid understanding