AP LANG - vocab

A sentence contains...

Subject (noun + modifiers) and a predicate (verb + modifiers)

Inverse construction

subject and predicate are inverse

Normal sentence components (standard order)

Subject → Verb → Object/Complement

Example sentence:

The student finished the lab report.

What is the subject and verb?

• Subject: the student

• Verb: finished

make inverse of the sentence

the children ran to the playground

to the playground ran the children

independent clause

• Can stand alone as a complete sentence.

• Has a subject + verb and expresses a complete thought.

• Example: I went to the store. ✅

dependent clause

• Cannot stand alone.

• Has a subject + verb, but does not express a complete thought.

• Often starts with a subordinating word: because, although, if, when, since, while…

• Example: Because I went to the store… ❌ (incomplete)

label ind. and dep. clauses :

after the movie, we went to get ice cream

• After the movie ended → DC

• we went to get ice cream → IC

compound subject

more than one noun do the verb

compound subject example : James and his boss swam today.

complex sentences

made of 2 or more clauses - at least one IC

complex sentence example : the super Mario Brother’s is my favorite movie because Chris Pratt is a great voice actor

• has IC and DC

complex sentence inverse construction : DC goes before IC

example : Despite the negative reviews, the Eternals is my favorite marvel movie.”

(DC then IC)

coordinating conjunction

coordinating conjunction connects two equal things - 2 words or 2 ICs.

ex : Facebook is for old people, but Tiktok is lit

coordinating conjunction examples

but, so, nor, and, for

subordinating conjunction

compares 2 unequal things (an IC & DC) - one full and one incomplete thought

ex : I drove to Tacobell after dreaming of nachos

subordinating conjunctions can be inverse but need punctuation. After dreaming of nachos (comma), I drove to Tacobell

comma splice error

incorrect combo of 2 IC’s : combining two IC’s needs a comma and conjunction

• ex : Beatrice loves cranberry jelly, she never eats mashed potatoes

• to correct this it would need “but”

Always put comma after dependent clause that comes before main clause

A clause needs a subject and verb. This is just a phrase : To win the race

1

Because the storm was approaching, we stayed indoors.

IC + DC

2

After finishing her homework

Phrase

3

The teacher explained the lesson clearly.

IC

4

While walking to school, he found a lost wallet.

IC + DC

5

To win the race

Phrase

6

The cat slept on the windowsill all afternoon.

IC

7

Although he was tired, he continued studying.

IC + DC

8

Running through the park

Phrase

9

The players celebrated when the final whistle blew.

IC + DC

10

In the middle of the night

Phrase

two IC’s can be

• two complete sentences

• connected with comma and coordinating conjunction

• connected with “;” (semicolon)

Two IC’s connected with semicolon : allow you to add evidence, examples, effects, counterpoints, etc.

ex : Rap music is an art form; it takes skill and patience to write original music.

conjunctive adverb

can be used with semicolon to show how two clauses relate to eachother

• always need to be followed w/ comma

• ex : however, therefore, thus, even though, although

conjunctive adverb example

Rap music is an art form; however, it doesn’t get the same respect from music snobs.

Colon

connects independent clause with dependent clause / fragment

• can be used to emphasize word / idea

• can be used to list things in an organized way

Colon use examples

1⃣ Colon to introduce a list

Structure: IC → : → list

• Example 1: I need to buy three things: bread, milk, and eggs.

  • Before the colon: I need to buy three things → IC

  • After the colon: bread, milk, and eggs → noun phrase list

• Example 2: Only one person can win the prize: Sarah, John, or Alex.

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2⃣ Colon to introduce an explanation or elaboration

Structure: IC → : → explanation

• Example 1: He made one mistake: he forgot to lock the door.

  • Before the colon: IC

  • After the colon: explains or elaborates IC

• Example 2: There was only one solution: they had to start over.

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3⃣ Colon to introduce a quotation

Structure: IC → : → quote

• Example 1: The coach shouted: “Run faster or you’ll lose!”

• Example 2: She reminded them of the rules: “No phones in class.”

Always make sure the part before the colon is a complete sentence (IC).

Dash

• can replace a colon when emphasizing a word / thought

• can signal change, interruption in thought

ex : snakes, slugs, worms - I hate anything that slithers

Dash example for signaling realization / shift in thought

I was going to call her—but then I realized she was already on vacation.

• Before the dash: main idea → I was going to call her

• After the dash: interruption / extra info → then I realized she was already on vacation

• Effect: signals a sudden realization or shift in thought

Dash example for change in tone / direction

Dash signaling a change in tone or direction

• A dash can abruptly shift the sentence’s direction, often to contrast, clarify, or emphasize.

Example:

She tried to forgive him—he, however, did not apologize.

• Before dash: idea about forgiveness

• After dash: contrasting idea → he did not apologize

• Effect: emphasizes contrast and creates dramatic pause

Type	Example	Effect
Comma	She smiled, but she was tired.	Soft pause, neutral
Parentheses	She smiled (though she was tired).	Side note, low emphasis
Dash	She smiled—but she was tired.	Strong pause, emphasizes contrast

Parenthesis

used to set off extra info that CLARIFIES AN IDEA but isn’t necessary for sentence’s meaning

ex : Susie was dejected to know that Godzilla (whom she loved) was a fictional monster

Brackets

show that words in quote have been added or modified to clarify or match verb tense

ex : Lucy said, “[Basketball] is my best sport.”

add personal comment by author (break 4th wall) - voice pops in

Elipses

• shows pause or interruption

• shows that words in quotation have been omitted for efficiency or clarity

If I had to choose one…

We the people…form a more perfect union

Introductory comma for introductory word / clause : DC + IC comma rule

• sadly, however, despite the evidencce

parenthetical comma

clarifying info that could go in parenthesis

ex : although she seemed innocent, with her big blue eyes, the tiger was a man eater