History of Psychology- test 2

René Descartes

Philosopher who introduced the idea of mind–body dualism, stating that mind and body are separate but interact at the pineal gland. He practiced systematic doubt, concluding “I think, therefore I am.” Supported nativism (innate ideas) and viewed the body mechanistically, influencing later psychology.

Thomas Hobbes

Early philosopher who believed human behavior is driven by pleasure and pain; people seek pleasure and avoid pain. Emphasized materialism and mechanistic behavior, influencing early learning theories. His work Leviathan also laid the groundwork for social psychology.

John Locke

British empiricist who wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding and argued that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate). Proposed all ideas come from experience or reflection, not innate ideas. Distinguished primary (objective) and secondary (subjective) qualities, influencing early psychological thought.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who believed that perception depends on both experience and innate mental categories (e.g., time, space, cause and effect). We interpret the world through these categories. His “critical philosophy” unified empiricism and rationalism and influenced later Gestalt and cognitive psychology.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that can be reliably noticed; discovered by Ernst Weber and foundational to psychophysics.

Psychophysics

Branch of psychology founded by Gustav Fechner that studies the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience (e.g., brightness, loudness). It was the first empirical quantification of mental experience, a key step toward experimental psychology.

Ernst Weber

German physiologist who formulated the concept of the just noticeable difference (jnd) and discovered Weber’s Law, describing the proportional relationship between stimulus intensity and perceived change.

Gustav Fechner

Founder of psychophysics; developed methods to measure the connection between the physical and psychological. Created the method of limits and method of constant stimuli to quantify perception. First to demonstrate that psychological experience could be measured scientifically.

Wilhelm Wundt

Known as the “Founder of Experimental Psychology.” Established the first psychology lab in 1879 (Leipzig). Advocated for experimental self-observation and objective measurement of mental processes like reaction time. Wrote Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology and Völkerpsychologie on cultural and higher mental processes.

Experimental Self-Observation

Wundt’s controlled form of introspection combining subjective experience with precise experimental control to study basic mental processes.

Völkerpsychologie

Wundt’s multi-volume work on language, culture, and social cognition, emphasizing that higher mental processes could not be studied experimentally but through observation and analysis.

Three-Dimensional Theory of Feelings

Wundt’s model proposing that emotions vary along three continua: pleasant–unpleasant, tension–relaxation, and excitement–calm.

Atomism (in psychology)

The idea that the mind can be understood by analyzing it into its basic elements or sensations; an approach linked to Wundt and Titchener’s structuralism.

Experimental Method (Wundt)

Method of systematically varying an independent variable while holding others constant and measuring changes in a dependent variable to study mental processes like sensation or reaction time.

Classical Conditioning

Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that elicits a natural response (UR), producing a conditioned response (CR) when the CS is presented alone.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response without prior learning (e.g., food causing salivation).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with the US, elicits a learned response (e.g., bell tone causing salivation).

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus after association has occurred (e.g., salivating to the bell).

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences—either reinforced (increased) or punished (decreased).

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus after a desired behavior to increase the likelihood of it occurring again.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a desired behavior to increase its occurrence (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a rat presses a lever).

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior to decrease its occurrence (e.g., scolding a child).

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior to decrease its occurrence (e.g., taking away privileges).

William James

Known as the Father of American Psychology. Author of Principles of Psychology. Believed in studying the functions of consciousness, not its elements. Helped found functionalism.

James–Lange Theory of Emotion

Theory proposing that bodily responses come before emotion: we feel emotions because we perceive physiological changes (e.g., “we are afraid because we tremble”).

Stream of Consciousness

James’s term for the continuous, ever-changing flow of thought, opposing the structuralist idea of breaking the mind into elements.

Habit (James)

James described habit as the tendency for actions to become automatic through repetition; vital for adaptation and efficiency in daily life.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology (founded by Edward Titchener) that sought to analyze consciousness into basic elements and understand how they combine. Used systematic introspection as its main method.

Systematic Introspection

Careful, trained self-observation of one’s conscious experiences during controlled experiments to identify the basic components of the mind.

Edward B. Titchener

Student of Wundt and founder of structuralism. Emphasized analysis of mental content into its simplest components and used introspection as his main research method.

Functionalism

Early psychological school focused on the purpose and adaptive functions of mental processes rather than their structure. Emphasized “mind in use.”

James Rowland Angell

Functionalist who defined psychology as the study of mental operations and their role in adaptation. Distinguished structuralism (content) from functionalism (process and purpose).

Harvey Carr

Functionalist who argued that psychology should study mental activity as an adaptive process that helps organisms attain goals.

George Herbert Mead

Proposed the Functional Definition of Meaning: the meaning of an object depends on its function and use in interaction.

Edward Thorndike

Functionalist known for studying learning through trial and error and formulating the Law of Effect, which became foundational to behaviorism and operant conditioning.

Law of Effect

Principle by Thorndike stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur, while those followed by discomfort are less likely.