psych Learning Targets

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology lab, father of psychology, introduced introspection leading to structuralism theory.

G Stanley Hall

First American to earn a PhD in psychology, first president of the APA.

Structuralism

Focuses on the mind's structures through introspection.

Functionalism

Explores how mental and behavioral processes function to adapt and flourish.

Sigmund Freud

Emphasized unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and psychoanalytic therapies.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Examines the unconscious to understand behavior, criticized for lack of measurability.

Behaviorism

Studies observable behavior and conditioning through stimuli and responses.

Humanism

Focuses on choices based on needs and self-actualization.

Cognitive Perspective

Studies perception, processing, and memory of information.

Positive Psychology

Aims to promote human thriving and well-being in society.

Clinical Psychology

Promotes psychological health, while psychiatry diagnoses mental conditions.

Basic Psychology

Focuses on theory and fundamental understanding; applied psychology finds practical solutions.

Research Areas

Cognitive, developmental, educational, psychometric psychology.

Professional Specialties

Forensic, health, industrial-organizational, neuro, rehabilitation, school, sport psychologists.

Theory

Aims to explain phenomena and generate testable hypotheses for research.

Hypothesis

Expresses a relationship between variables for testing.

IV and DV

Independent variable manipulated, dependent variable measured.

Confounding Variables

Factors that can bias results in an experiment.

Experimental Group

Receives treatment, Control Group:Does not receive treatment.

Operational Definition

Specific definition for variables to ensure replicability.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants randomly to groups; Random Selection:Choosing random participants.

Population vs Sample

Population is the entire group, Sample is a subset chosen for study.

Types of Research

Experiments, correlational studies, survey research, naturalistic observations, case studies, longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, median, mode; Measures of Variance:Standard deviation.

Positive and Negative Skew

Skewed data distribution; affects measures of central tendency.

Positive and Negative Correlations

Relationships between variables; Illusory Correlations:False perceptions of correlations.

Statistical Significance & P-value

Indicate likelihood of results occurring by chance.

Placebo Effects

Psychological effects of believing in a treatment.

Experimenter Bias

Unconscious bias affecting research outcomes.

Ethical Guidelines

Protect research participants and ensure ethical practice in studies.

Identical twins

Result from a single fertilized egg splitting into two

Fraternal twins

Arise from separate fertilized eggs

Bottom-up processing

Involves processing sensory input from receptors to higher levels

Top-down processing

Constructs perceptions based on experience and expectations

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

Minimum difference between stimuli detectable half the time

Weber’s Law

States that a constant percentage difference is needed to perceive a change

Signal Detection Theory Outcomes

Present, Absent, Yes (hit), No (miss), Correct rejection, False alarm

Subliminal messages

Unnoticed stimuli that can influence responses

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation

Rods

Receptor cells for black, white, and gray vision in low light

Cones

Receptor cells for color vision and detail in well-lit conditions

Parallel processing

Ability to process multiple aspects of stimuli simultaneously

Color vision

Created by combining light waves of primary colors

Trichromatic theory

Three types of cones detect blue, red, and green

Opponent-process theory

Sensory receptors work in pairs to perceive colors

Gestalt psychology

Focuses on how we perceive patterns and wholes

Monocular cues

Depth cues perceived by one eye

Binocular cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes

Phantom limb syndrome

Sensation of a missing limb

Gate control theory

Explains how the brain modulates pain perception

Taste receptors

Detect sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami tastes

Olfactory receptors

Detect odors and send signals to the brain

Kinesthetic system

Provides information on body movement and position

Transduction

Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals

Visual cliff study

Demonstrated depth perception in infants

Classical conditioning

Learning through association of stimuli and responses

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences of behaviors

Law of Effect

Behaviors leading to pleasant outcomes are strengthened

Encoding

Process of getting information into our brain

Storage

Retaining information over time

Retrieval

Process of getting information back out when needed

Effortful processing

Requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

Acoustic encoding

Using auditory stimuli to implant memories

Visual encoding

Remembering images or visual information

Semantic encoding

Making sensory input meaningful

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall first and last items in a list best

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that help in remembering information

Sensory memory

Includes iconic and echoic memory

Short-term memory

Temporary storage of information

Working memory

Active processing of information in short-term memory

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent storage of information

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Hierarchies

Organizing concepts into broad categories and subcategories

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

Flash-bulb memory

Clear memory of emotionally significant events

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned

Recall

Retrieving information learned earlier

Priming

Activation of particular associations in memory

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future

State-dependent memory

Easier recall when in the same state as learning

Mood-congruent memory

Recalling experiences consistent with current mood

Deja vu

Feeling of familiarity without conscious recall

Repression

Motivated forgetting of anxiety-arousing thoughts or memories

Long-term potentiation

Increase in cell's firing potential after stimulation

Explicit memory

Conscious recollection of facts and experiences

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection

Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and communicating

Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development

Infancy (up to 1 year):trust vs. mistrust

Major physical changes in middle adulthood

Visual sharpness diminishes, eye pupil shrinks, lens becomes more transparent

Impact of aging on recall and recognition

Ability to recall new information declines, ability to recognize new information remains, age is less a predictor of memory

Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies & intelligence

Cross-sectional studies show fluid intelligence declines in older adults, longitudinal studies show stable intelligence until around age 65

Motivation

Need/drive that energizes and directs behavior, interplay between nature and nurture

Theories of motivation

Drive reduction, arousal, incentive, instinct

Biological motivation components

Needs, drives, homeostasis

Regulation of hunger

Psychological (stress), cultural factors (preferences, habits)

Brain parts and hormones related to hunger

Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus, glucose, insulin, leptin

Factors associated with diet and weight loss

Metabolism, set point, dietary restraint