AP Psychology - Unit 7

Motivation

Motivation

need or desire that’s directed toward a specific goal

Drive

motivate us to take action

Primary Needs

biological needs; e.g. hunger or thirst

Secondary Needs

psychological needs; e.g. social approval or sense of belonging

Instinct Theory

motivation theory; William James; motivation is something we’re born with via genetics (instinctual), not external items

Drive Reduction Theory

motivation theory; we’re always trying to keep our bodies in homeostasis; motivated by primary needs (homeostasis disturbed → biological need (hunger) → drive (state of tension) → goal-directed behavior (eat) → need satisfied & homeostasis)

Arousal Theory

motivation theory; we’re motivated to reach an optimal arousal state

Yerkes-Dodson Law

performance increases with arousal but only up to a certain point; there’s a performance sweet spot

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

explains how individuals are motivated based on their current level state

physiological → safety → love & belonging → esteem → self-actualization → self-transcendence

Cognitive Dissonance

when something happens that’s inconsistent with our mind’s beliefs, we feel uncomfortable causing us to change our behavior

Incentives

positive or negative external stimuli that promote a behavior (rewards or punishments)

Incentive Theory

theory that we’re motivated by incentives to behave a specific way; e.g. studying to get a good grade

Extrinsic Motivation

external motivation; e.g. money, praise; not as strong of a motivator

Intrinsic Motivation

internal motivation; e.g. self-satisfaction; keeps one more engaged for a long period

Overjustification Effect

external incentives decrease one’s motivation, causing them to slow down or stop performing a task

Affiliation Motivation

seeking our relationships not for material reasons but for human connection

Achievement Motivation

Henry Murray; being motivated to reach mastery, accomplish goals, and achieve more significant accomplishments; help us face obstacles

Self-efficacy

Albert Bandura; one’s belief in their ability to exercise control over their own lives

Self-esteem

respect for oneself

Glucose

when we eat, its created and raises our blood sugar; high insulin = low ___ = low blood sugar = hunger

Arcuate Nucleus

in hypothalamus; causes appetite; when stimulated = hunger, obese; when damaged = not hungry, starvation

Appetite-suppressing Hormones

tell us when we’re full; produced thanks to ventromedial hypothalamus; if damaged, we keep eating even when full

Sex

not needed to survive but biological drive/motivation

Testosterone & Estrogen

sex hormones; affect prenatal development and puberty

James-Lange Theory

emotion theory; stimulus → arousal → emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

emotion theory; stimulus → arousal AND emotion simultaneously

Schachter-Singer Theory

emotion theory; arousal + cognitive label = emotion; interpreting arousal as fear or excitement

LeDoux

emotion theory; emotions sometimes go directly to amygdala, skipping cortex and causing an immediate emotion without appraisal

Lazarus

emotion theory; stimulus → cognitive appraisal → arousal AND emotion

Appraisal

interpretation (e.g. you hear house creaking → is it murderer or windy? → determines emotion)

Paul Ekman

person; some emotions are innate regardless of culture; found many people identify with the same facial expressions (e.g. smile = happy)

Facial Feedback Effect

certain facial muscles trigger certain emotions; when people see your face, it impacts their mood and they’re likely to respond with similar facial expressionsB

Behavior Feedback Effect

walk with long strides, you’ll feel confident; stay hunched over, you’ll feel cowardly

Stress

caused by no longer being homeostasis; can be positive or negative depending on how one perceives it

Eustress

stress perceived as beneficial; caused by positive life events

Distress

stress perceived as detrimental; caused by negative life events

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye

alarm (stressor occurs, fight-or-flight, gather resources)

resistance (adapting to fight-or-flight)

exhaustion (stress for too long; vulnerable health)

Kurt Lewin

person; approach & avoidance conflicts

Approach-approach Conflict

choose between two positive choices

Avoidance-avoidance Conflict

choose between two negative choices

Approach-avoidance Conflict

only one option with positive and negative aspects

Multiple Avoidance-approach Conflict

complex conflict with numerous positive and negative options

Psychodynamic

drives and motivation shapes behavior

Psychoanalysis

Freud; childhood and unconscious shape behavior

Free association

patient says unfiltered thoughtsC

Ego

conscious; mediator

Superego

preconscious; morals

Id

unconscious; impulsive

Libido

psychic energy; sexual and aggressive impulses we must learn to control

Psychosexual Stages

through these stages, the superego and ego learn what they should and should not do

Oral Stage

birth-18mo; focus on oral stimulation

Anal Stage

18mo-3yo; focus on being able to control bowel movements

Phallic Stage

3-6yo; explore body and genitals; gender identity; oedipus complex

Latency Stage

6yo-puberty; sexual feelings are hidden; focus is on past fixations; dormant sexual feeling

Genital Stage

puberty-on; get sexual pleasure from sexual behavior

Defense Mechanisms

ego’s way of defending itself and reducing/coping with anxiety

Repression

most basic defense mechanism

Neo-Freudians

agree unconscious is important but more focus on conscious and less on sex and aggression as main drivers

Alfred Adler

neo-Freudian; inferiority complex; personality is shaped by social tension, not childhood sexual tension

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung (Neo-Freudian); part of unconscious mind that’s been inherited throughout generations; why cultures have similar myths and symbols

Reciprocal Determinism

Albert Bandura; environment, behavior, and internal factors interact and influence each other

Expectancy Theory

Julian Rotter; we react a certain way in certain situations because we learned from a past experience and expect the same result

External Locus of Control

perceive oneself as controlled by outside factors

Internal Locus of Control

perceive oneself as controlled by ourselves

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura; social behavior is learned via observation and imitation

Carl Rogers

person; person-centered perspective; self-actualization can’t happen if environment hinders them

Self-concept

Carl Rogers; how one evaluates and thinks about themself

Positive Self-concept

real self matches ideal self

Negative Self-concept

real self doesn’t match ideal self

Unconditional Positive Regard

Carl Rogers; attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Personal Growth

stronger self-awareness and self-acceptance; acceptance, genuine, & empathy

Collectivism

support group/family/society over individual; personality is connected to group’s belonging

Individualism

focus on individual achievements over fitting in; independent identity

Gordon Allport

person; trait theories; wanted to describe personality, not explain it

Personal Traits

one’s characteristics, behaviors, and conscious motive; stay stable over time

Cardinal Traits

characteristics so strong they influence almost every behavior

Central Traits

characteristics that are moderately strong so they’re influential and easily identifiable

Secondary Traits

characteristics that are only expressed in certain situations

Hans & Sybil Eysenck

person; we’re made up of two traits found via factor analysis; extroversion vs. introversion & unstable vs. stable emotions; believed traits are biological (e.g. some ANS are more easily stressed)

Big Five

Robert McCrae & Paul Costa; 5 traits created via factor analysis; conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, & extraversion

Personality Inventories

questionnaires to gauge one’s personality; objective; true-false, agree-disagree; used for Big Five

Minnestoa Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Starke Hathaway; personality inventory originally to identify emotional disorders but now also used for traits

Objective Personality Test

personality test where questions have specific answers; MBTI

Projective Personality Test

personality test with open-response questions; test taker isn’t limited to a select group of answers; TAT & Rorschach

Rorschach Test

ink blots; projective personality test

Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)

ambiguous images participants make up a story for to reveal unconscious; projective personality test