APUSH Unit 7 Vocab

Imperialists/Imperialism

Imperialists/Imperialism

Imperialism in the context of APUSH refers to the policy and practice of extending a nation's influence, control, or dominance over other territories through various means, such as military conquest, economic dominance, or political manipulation. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States engaged in imperialism by acquiring overseas territories like the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii, as well as exerting influence in Latin America. Imperialism was often justified by notions of national superiority, economic expansion, and the spread of American values, but it also sparked debates over the ethical and moral implications of empire building.

Alfred T. Mahan/Influence of Sea Power Upon History

Some people believed that the United States needed to compete with the imperialistic nations or it would be sidelined as a second-class power in world affairs. Chief among these was U.S. Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. He shaped the debate over the need for naval bases with his book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890). He argued that a strong navy was crucial to a country’s ambitions of securing foreign markets and becoming a a world power. Mahan’s book was widely read by prominent American citizens as well as political leaders in Europe and Japan.

Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War of 1898 was a significant event in American history, marking the country's emergence as a global power. It began with the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, which led to U.S. intervention in Cuba's fight for independence from Spain. The war lasted only a few months and ended with the Treaty of Paris, in which Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. This victory propelled the U.S. onto the world stage and sparked debates about imperialism, expansionism, and America's role in global affairs.

jingoism

In the 1890s, American public opinion was being swept by a growing wave of jingoism—an intense form of nationalism calling for an aggressive foreign policy.

yellow journalism (yellow press)

Actively promoting war fever in the Unites States was “yellow journalism,” sensationalistic reporting that featured bold and lurid headlines of crime, disaster, and scandal. Among the most sensationalistic newspapers were Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal. These papers printed exaggerated and false accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. Believing what they read daily in their newspapers, many Americans urged Congress and the president to intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons and put a stop to the atrocities and suffering.

Joseph Pulitzer

Journalist for New York World which printed exaggerated and false accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba.

William Randolf Hearst

Journalist for the New York Journal which printed exaggerated and false accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba.

USS Maine

Less than one week after the de Lomé letter made headlines, a far more shocking event occurred. On February 15, 1898, the U.S. battleship USS Maine was at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, when it suddenly exploded, killing 260 Americans on board. The yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship. However, experts later concluded that the explosion was probably an accident.

Teller Amendment

Responding to the president’s message, Congress passed a joint resolution on April 20, 1898, authorizing war. Part of the resolution, the Teller Amendment, declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and that, once peace was restored to the island, the Cuban people would control their own government.

Theodore Roosevelt

As President from 1901 to 1909, Roosevelt pursued a bold agenda known as the Square Deal, which aimed to regulate big business, protect consumers, and conserve natural resources. His domestic policies included trust-busting, consumer protection legislation, and conservation efforts through the establishment of national parks and forests. In terms of foreign policy, Roosevelt advocated for a more assertive role for the United States on the world stage. He famously declared his foreign policy approach as "speak softly and carry a big stick," emphasizing diplomacy backed by military strength. Roosevelt oversaw the construction of the Panama Canal, which facilitated trade and military movement between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. He also mediated an end to the Russo-Japanese War, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.

Treaty of Paris, 1898

More controversial than the war itself was the peace treaty signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. It provided for (1) recognition of Cuban independence, (2) U.S. acquisition of two Spanish islands—Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and Guam in the Pacific, and (3) U.S. control of the Philippines in return for a $20 million payment to Spain. Since the avowed purpose of the U.S. war effort was to liberate Cuba, Americans accepted this provision of the treaty. However, many opposed taking over the Philippines, a large island nation, as a colony.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico holds significant importance in APUSH Unit 7 due to its role in American imperialism and the expansion of U.S. influence beyond its continental borders. Following the Spanish-American War of 1898, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States by Spain. This acquisition marked a departure from traditional American isolationism and represented the beginning of the U.S. as a colonial power with overseas territories.

Philippines

The Philippines holds significant importance in APUSH Unit 7 due to its role in the expansion of American imperialism and the subsequent debates over foreign policy and empire building. The annexation of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War marked a major shift in American foreign policy, as it represented the country's first foray into overseas colonialism. The acquisition of the Philippines raised questions about American values, the extent of U.S. power, and the responsibilities of the nation as a global player.

Emilio Aguinaldo

Emilio Aguinaldo was a Filipino revolutionary leader who played a crucial role in the fight for independence against Spanish colonial rule and later against American imperialism. During the Spanish-American War, he collaborated with the United States in hopes of gaining independence from Spain. However, when the U.S. decided to annex the Philippines instead of granting full independence, Aguinaldo led a resistance movement against American forces. This ultimately led to the Philippine-American War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902. Despite initial successes, Aguinaldo's forces were eventually defeated by the better-equipped and more numerous American troops. Aguinaldo's efforts symbolize the complex dynamics of imperialism, nationalism, and resistance during this period of American expansionism.

Anti-Imperialist League

The Anti-Imperialist League was a prominent movement in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that opposed the expansionist policies of the government, particularly in relation to overseas territories acquired during the Spanish-American War. Founded in 1898, the league included prominent figures such as Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and William Jennings Bryan. Members of the league argued that imperialism contradicted American values of liberty and self-determination, and they were particularly vocal in their opposition to the annexation of the Philippines. While the league ultimately failed to prevent U.S. imperialism, it played a significant role in shaping public opinion and fostering debate on America's role in the world.

Insular Cases

One question concerned the constitutional rights of the Philippine people: Did the Constitution follow the flag? In other words, did the provisions of the U.S. Constitution apply to whatever territories fell under U.S. control, including the Philippines and Puerto Rico? Bryan and other anti-imperialists argued in the affirmative, while leading imperialists argued in the negative. The issue was resolved in favor of the imperialists in a series of Supreme Court cases (1901-1903) known as the Insular (island) Cases. The Court ruled that constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions and that the power to decide whether or not to grant such rights belonged to Congress

Platt Amendment

Previously, the Teller Amendment to the war resolution of 1898 had guaranteed U.S. respect for Cuba’s sovereignty as an independent nation. Nevertheless, U.S. troops remained in Cuba from 1898 until 1901. In the latter year, Congress made withdrawal of troops conditional upon Cuba’s acceptance of terms included an amendment to an army appropriations bill—the Platt Amendment. Bitterly resented by Cuban nationalists, the Platt Amendment required Cuba to agree (1) to never sign a treaty with a foreign power that impaired its independence, (2) to permit the United States to intervene in Cuba’s affairs to preserve its independence and maintain law and order, and (3) to allow the U.S. to maintain naval bases in Cuba, including one permanent base at Guantanamo Bay.

Open door policy in China

Europeans were further impressed by U.S. involvement in global politics as a result of John Hay’s policies toward China. As McKinley’s secretary of state, Hay was alarmed that the Chinese empire, weakened by political corruption and failure to modernize, was falling under the control of various outside powers. In the 1890s, Russia, Japan, Great Britain, France, and Germany had all established spheres of influence in China, meaning that they could dominate trade and investment within their sphere and shut out competitors. To prevent the United States from losing access to the lucrative China trade, Hay dispatched a diplomatic note in 1899 to nations controlling spheres of influence. He asked them to accept the concept of an Open Door, by which all nations would have equal trading privileges in China. The replies to Hay’s note were evasive. However, because no nation rejected the concept, Hay declared that all had accepted the Open Door policy. The press hailed Hay’s initiative as a diplomatic triumph.

Boxer Rebellion

As the 19th century ended, nationalism and xenophobia were on the rise in China. In 1900, a secret society of Chinese nationalists—the Society of Harmonious Fists, or Boxers—attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries. To protect American lives and property, U.S. troops participated in an international force that marched into Peking and quickly rushed the rebellion of the Boxers. The countries forced China to pay a huge indemnity, which further weakened the imperial regime.

“big stick diplomacy”

In 1901, only a few months after being inaugurated president for a second time, McKinley was fatally shot by an anarchist. Succeeding him in office was the Republican vice president—the young expansionist and hero of the Spanish-American War, Theodore Roosevelt. Describing his foreign policy, the new president had once said it was his motto to “speak softly and carry a big stick.” The press therefore applied the label “big stick” to Roosevelt’s aggressive foreign policy. By acting boldly and decisively in a number of situation, Roosevelt attempted to build the reputation of the United States as a world power. Imperialists applauded his every move, but critics disliked breaking the tradition of nonentanglement in global politics.

Panama Canal/Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

Roosevelt was eager to begin the construction of a canal through the narrow but rugged terrain of the isthmus of Panama. He was frustrated, however, by Colombia’s control of this isthmus and its refusal to agree to U.S. terms for digging the canal through its territory. Losing patience with Colombia’s demands of more money and sovereignty over the canal, Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama’s independence in 1903. With the support of the U.S. Navy, the rebellion succeeded immediately and almost without bloodshed. However, the new government of an independent Panama had to sign the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903 granting the United States all rights over the 51 mile-long and 10 mile-wide Canal Zone as “if it were sovereign…in perpetuity” to keep U.S. protection. Years later, Roosevelt boasted, “I took the Canal Zone and let Congress debate.”

Roosevelt Corollary

Another application of Roosevelt’s big stick diplomacy involved Latin American nations that were in deep financial trouble and could not pay their debts to European creditors. For example, in 1902, the British dispatched warships to Venezuela to force that country to pay its debts. In 1904, it appeared that European powers stood ready to intervene in Santo Domingo (the Dominican Republic) for the same reason. Rather than let Europeans intervene in Latin America—a blatant violation of the Monroe Doctrine—Roosevelt declared in December 1904 that the United States would intervene instead, whenever necessary. This policy became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. It meant, for example, that the United States would send gunboats to a Latin American country that was delinquent in paying its debts. U.S. sailors and marines would then occupy the country’s major ports to manage the collection of customs taxes until European debts were satisfied. Over the next 20 years, U.S. presidents used the Roosevelt Corollary to justify sending U.S. forces into Haiti, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. One long-term result of such interventions was poor U.S. relations with the entire region of Latin America.

Great White Fleet

To demonstrate U.S. naval power to Japan and other nations, Roosevelt sent a fleet of battleship on and around-the-world cruise (1907-1909). The great white ships made an impressive sight, and the Japanese government warmly welcomed their arrival in Tokyo Bay.

Willian Howard Taft/“dollar diplomacy”

Roosevelt’s successor, William Howard Taft, did not carry the same “big stick.” He adopted a foreign policy that was mildly expansionist but depended more on investors’ dollars than on navy’s battleships. His policy of promoting U.S. trade by supporting American enterprises abroad was known as “dollar diplomacy.”

Woodrow Wilson/“moral diplomacy”

In his first term as president, Wilson had limited success applying a high moral standard to foreign relations. He and Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan attempted to show that the United States respected other nations’ rights and supported the spread of democracy. Hoping to demonstrate that his presidency was opposed to self-interested imperialism, Wilson took steps to correct what he viewed as wrongful policies of the past.