Gov 312L Barnay second exam

New Look (1953-1961) main characteristics

U.S. Cold War strategy emphasizing :

- asymmetrical response (relying heavily on nuclear weapons instead of conventional forces)

- strengthening global alliances, conducting psychological warfare, and operating under the belief that Marxism-Leninism shaped Soviet foreign policy

Criticized for:

- Over-reliance on nuclear deterrence

- Inability to prevent Third World revolutions

-Missed opportunities for diplomacy.

How did the John F. Kennedy administration view the role of economics in foreign policy?

Economics became more important as post-war economic euphoria began to decline.

How did the Kennedy administration reassess the Soviet threat?

It lowered estimates of Soviet strength in strategic missiles and conventional forces in Europe based on improved intelligence.

What global perspective did John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson maintain during their administrations?

They retained a zero-sum view of the world, similar to the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, seeing global politics as a win-lose struggle between the U.S. and its rivals.

What new foreign policy approach did John F. Kennedy adopt?

A containment strategy similar to NSC-68, emphasizing flexible and appropriate responses regardless of cost.

According to John F. Kennedy, what was the main goal of U.S. foreign policy?

Not to remake the world, but to maintain a balance of power.

How did John F. Kennedy view nationalism?

Nationalism was not a threat to the U.S. as long as it supported self-determination.

What was the core message of the Kennedy Doctrine?

The U.S. would defend liberty worldwide, committing to "pay any price, bear any burden...to assure the survival and success of liberty." (Inaugural Address, 1961)

How did George F. Kennan view the goal of U.S. foreign policy?

He believed in particularism, not universalism; focusing on specific strategic interests rather than global ideological missions.

How did John F. Kennedy and his advisers differ from Kennan?

They believed the global balance of power was fragile and required active efforts to maintain stability.

What was the goal of Flexible Response under John F. Kennedy?

To expand the range of military and strategic options available to the U.S.

How did Flexible Response differ from NSC-68 and the New Look strategy?

JFK rejected reliance on asymmetrical (mainly nuclear) strategies, arguing they were too limited to address diverse global challenges.

What was the "symmetrical approach" under John F. Kennedy?

It was defined as the ability to respond wherever and in whatever manner aggression occurred without immediately escalating to a general nuclear war.

What does "calibration" mean in JFK's foreign policy?

Fine-tuning responses to ensure they are appropriate and proportional to each situation.

What was the first area of calibration under JFK?

Strengthening conventional and unconventional military capabilities.

What was the second area of calibration under JFK?

Building up strategic missile capabilities.

How did Flexible Response contribute to the Vietnam War outcome?

U.S. defeat grew from assumptions underlying the strategy.

What key assumption justified U.S. involvement in Vietnam?

That defending Southeast Asia was essential to maintaining global order (domino effect)

What did U.S. policymakers assume about the use of force in Vietnam?

That force could be applied precisely and effectively --> Misjudged terrain and were ignorant to local politics

What assumption was made about evaluating success in Vietnam?

That performance could be measured accurately

What outcome did the U.S. expect from involvement in Vietnam?

Increased American power, prestige, and credibility.

How did John F. Kennedy implement Flexible Response militarily?

By increasing defense spending, expanding Special Forces, adding combat divisions, and building up nuclear weapons.

What specific military expansions occurred under JFK?

$6 billion in defense spending, Special Forces (Green Berets), 5 combat divisions, ~1,000 ICBMs, and 32 Polaris submarines.

What was the overall goal of these military expansions?

To give the U.S. multiple options to combat communism.

The US helped curtail the soviets influence by

Enacting the Marshall Plan (provided $13 billion to Western European nations to rebuild infrastructure, revive economies, and prevent the spread of communism)

3 Reasons why the Western European economy sped up post war

1. They caught up due to previous non-development (non-industrialized & political stagnation)

2. The US provided the security needed for these transformations

3. Crossed lines that had previously not been okay (no one is starving anymore?)

The recovery of western german economy word

The Wirtschaftswunder

Cold war required:

Centralized states to make quick decisions (easier chain of command)

Kennedy did what:

Brought a sense of youth to the office, and it helped that he was hot because now visuals are mega important for the president.

LBJ Great Society

The Great Society was an ambitious series of domestic programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) between 1964 and 1968, aiming to eliminate poverty, reduce racial injustice, and expand social welfare. It aimed to improve education, healthcare, and environmental protection, serving as the largest reform agenda since the New Deal

LBJ Shortcoming

Great domestically Terrible foreign

Big names of civil rights USA 1960s

MLK, Malcolm X, Huey Newton (Black Panthers), Bobby Kennedy (Robert)

Mid 1950s China

They begin to transform because they are exhausted, so they hope to become USSR 2.0

Soviet Unions Space race

They won it, they got Sputnik up, a dog up, a man up, and the first and youngest woman in space.

Cuban Missle crisis

Closest US ever got to a hot war/ conflict

Cuban Missle crisis overview

13-day standoff between the US and the USSR, sparked by the secret Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from Florida. Following the U-2 spy plane discovery, President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade, demanding the removal of the missiles. The conflict ended with the Soviets removing the missiles in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey

Bay of Pigs, 1961

The Bay of Pigs was a failed invasion of Cuba, planned under Eisenhower, implemented under JFK. Cuban exiles living in the US were trained by the CIA and landed in Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. They believed it would start an uprising of the Cuban people against Castro (Kill him). That did not happen, and the event was a huge embarrassment for the US and pushed Castro to seek more help from the USSR, leading directly to the Cuban Missile Crisis

CIA Director John McCone

Warned President Kennedy about Soviet missile deployment in Cuba as early as August 1962, months before official discovery. McCone suspected offensive missiles based on SAM site sightings, but his warnings were dismissed by colleagues as political, since he was a Republican

--> Coup informant

March on Washington (1963)

August - 200,000 demonstrators converged on the Lincoln Memorial to hear Dr. King's speech and to celebrate Kennedy's support for the civil rights movement. (putting pressure on the federal government to pass civil rights legislation)

Hare Brained Schemes (Kruschev)

Cuban Missile Crisis, Berlin Wall, Communal Farm, and the withdrawal of Romanian troops (They were becoming too autonomus)

Third World Movement

3rd estate - French Rev.

Sought to unite non-white nations for economic parity and political non-alignment, favoring collective development over Cold War bloc membership.

(Played both sides, think Egypt: Balancing vs bandwagoning)

How did U.S. leaders justify their Vietnam policies in relation to earlier foreign policy?

They argued their actions were consistent with U.S. foreign policy since 1947.

What actually changed in U.S. foreign policy assumptions over time?

There was a gradual shift in how threats and priorities were understood.

Congo in the 1960s

Gained independence and had a lot of fragmentation, reached out to the SU for help, but the US overthrew their government first.

Non-Aligned movement

Coalition of states that believed that the Cold war Threatened international interests. This includes Yugoslavia, India, Egypt, Indonesia, Ghana, Cuba, Cyprus, Ethiopia, & Saudi Arabia

Czechoslovakia in the 1960s

Deteriorating socio-economic conditions, there was a lot of tension between the economic doctrine and modern demands. The Czech CP (Antonin Novotny) had dogmatic adherence to ideology even if it produces less than needed

Alexander Dubcek

The Czech reformer who wanted to end the bureaucratic model and centrally planned economic system,

What happened in Czech in 1968

Novotny Resigns, which gives rise to "Socialism with a Human Face" & the Prague Spring. Ended by a SU invasion.

What was the Goal of "Socialism with a Human Face"

Political & Economic liberalization while retaining socialist system.

1. Liberalization of Stalinist political model

2. Economic Liberalization to create an efficient & Decentralized economy

3. Federalization of the country to give greater autonomy to Slovakia

Short lived Achievements of Socialism with a Human Face?

The Press was more autonomous

Freedom of Expression

Economic Reforms began to be implemented

Slovaks received full autonomy (had a seperate communist party

Brezhnev Doctrine

If the SU thinks the building of socialism is failing, they can intervene (justified invasion of Czech)

Why were the student demonstrations in Yugoslavia important?

They were the first mass protest since WW2, Tito even gave into some student demands before he imprisoned Student leaders and fired professors

Paris Student Riots 1968

How did NSC-68 change U.S. perceptions of the communist threat?

It shifted focus from the Soviet Union to a broader international communist movement.

What major problem existed with deterrence strategy in Vietnam?

There was often no clear understanding of who or what was being deterred.

Why did the strategy of calibration fail in Vietnam?

It failed to ensure that force would be used in a precise and controlled way.

What issue characterized U.S. intelligence use during Vietnam, especially under Lyndon B. Johnson?

A tendency to ignore or dismiss discouraging intelligence.

What is required for an effective strategy beyond calibration and monitoring?

A sense of proportion and awareness of competing commitments.

How did the Vietnam War affect Lyndon B. Johnson's presidency?

It severely damaged his presidency and his chances for re-election despite domestic successes.

What was a key criticism of Flexible Response?

It lacked balance between goals (ends) and resources/actions (means).

What problem arose from the focus on process in Flexible Response?

Leaders became overly focused on managing strategy rather than evaluating its effectiveness.

What was the unexpected legacy of Flexible Response?

Instead of precise fine-tuning, it often led to clumsy overreactions.

What demonstrated the early Soviet advantage in the Space Race?

Launching Sputnik in 1955, the first object to orbit Earth.

Who was Laika and why was she significant?

Laika was the first animal to orbit Earth (1957), demonstrating Soviet space capabilities.

Who was the first human to orbit Earth?

Yuri Gagarin in 1961.

Why did the Soviet Union place missiles in Cuba?

To protect Cuba after the Bay of Pigs and to counter U.S. missiles in places like Turkey.

When did the Cuban Missile Crisis begin and end?

Began October 16, 1962; ended October 28, 1962.

Who came to power in Cuba after the 1959 revolution?

Fidel Castro

What was the Bay of Pigs invasion?

A failed 1961 U.S.-backed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro.

What were key flaws in the Bay of Pigs operation?

Faulty assumptions about support in Cuba and last-minute changes that weakened the plan.

What was the outcome of the Bay of Pigs invasion?

It failed quickly, strengthening Castro and Cuba's ties to the Soviet Union.

What major U.S. policy followed the Bay of Pigs?

An economic embargo against Cuba in 1962.

What was the purpose of the 1962 mock invasion (Operation Ortsac)?

To simulate overthrowing Castro, which increased Cuban fears of a real U.S. invasion.

How did Cuba respond to U.S. threats after Bay of Pigs?

Declared itself socialist and strengthened ties with the Soviet Union.

What nuclear advantage did the U.S. have in the early 1960s?

Over 300 ICBMs and Polaris submarines.

How did Soviet leaders justify placing missiles in Cuba?

As a necessary response to a desperate military imbalance caused by U.S. advantages in weapons and intelligence.

What was the nuclear power balance between the U.S. and Soviet Union in 1962?

The U.S. had about 10 times as many nuclear weapons; the Soviets were significantly outgunned.

How did U.S. officials view Soviet missiles in Cuba?

As not significantly changing the overall strategic balance of power.

What U.S. missile deployment contributed to Soviet actions in Cuba?

Jupiter IRBMs placed in Turkey in 1961, which threatened the Soviet Union.

Why did John F. Kennedy consider the Jupiter missiles in Turkey questionable?

Submarines could provide better, more secure nuclear deterrence.

Why was Nikita Khrushchev angered by U.S. actions?

He saw U.S. missiles in Turkey as a personal and strategic affront.

What were some controversial CIA actions during this period?

Involvement in coups, assassination plots, and covert operations in multiple countries (e.g., Cuba, Ecuador, Laos).

What assumption did JFK and his advisers initially make about Soviet actions reguarding BoP?

That the Soviets would not place missiles in Cuba.

What was the purpose of the Lockheed U-2?

High-altitude surveillance and intelligence gathering.

When were missile sites in Cuba clearly confirmed?

October 14, 1962, through U-2 photographs.

What was ExComm?

A group of top advisers assembled by JFK to plan the U.S. response.

What major event marked the peak of the crisis?

October 27, when a U-2 was shot down over Cuba.

What economic conditions existed in Czechoslovakia in the 1960s?

Economic decline, industrial erosion, and negative growth rates.

What problem characterized the Czechoslovak Communist Party (CSCP)?

Rigid adherence to ideology that led to economic inefficiency.

How was the communist leadership in Czechoslovakia divided?

Between hardliners and reformers.

What was the position of Antonín Novotný?

A hardliner who believed no reforms were necessary.

What reforms did Alexander Dubček support?

Ending centralized control and reforming the economic and political system.

What was the New Economic Model (1967)?

A limited reform effort that ultimately failed to fix deeper systemic problems.

What major political change occurred in January 1968?

Antonín Novotný was replaced by Alexander Dubček.

What were the main goals of the Prague Spring?

Political liberalization, economic reform, and greater Slovak autonomy.

Why were deeper reforms necessary in Czechoslovakia?

Minor reforms were insufficient; the old leadership blocked meaningful change.

What caused reform movements in Czechoslovakia?

Tension between outdated communist economic policies and modern economic needs.

What did Dean Rusk mean by "we were eyeball to eyeball"?

The U.S. and USSR were at the brink of nuclear war before the Soviets backed down.

Why were Soviet missiles in Cuba especially dangerous to the U.S.?

A: They could reach Washington, D.C. quickly with little warning time.

How did Soviet nuclear capabilities compare at the time?

Only 4-6 ICBMs and about 100 short-range missiles.