Chapter 16/17 - Scientific Rev/Enlightnemtn

Hermetic Magic, Alchemy, Astrology (16th

17th Century)

• Intellectual traditions combining mysticism, magic, and natural philosophy.\n- Central Belief: The universe is interconnected, suggesting that humans have the ability to manipulate natural forces.\n- Impact: Influenced early scientists such as Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who sought to uncover hidden patterns in nature.\n- Alchemy: - Served as a precursor to modern chemistry.\n - Aimed to transmute substances into more valuable forms (often aimed at turning base metals into gold).\n- Astrology: - Widely accepted during this period.\n - Frequently guided medical treatments and decisions made by royals.

Geocentricism

• Definition: Earth-centered model of the universe.\n- Dominant since the time of Ptolemy (2nd century CE).\n- Cosmic Framework: Universe believed to consist of spheres with Earth at the center; planets and the sun were thought to move around it.\n- Support Base: Received strong backing from Church authorities.\n- Challenges: During the Scientific Revolution, the geocentric model was contested; notably by heliocentric theory as argued by figures such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler.

Heliocentricism

• Definition: Sun-centered model of the universe, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus.\n- Copernicus's Timeline: Lived from 1473 to 1543.\n- Major Work: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543).\n- Key Shifts: - Placed the Sun at the center of the cosmos, with Earth as one of the orbiting planets.\n - Offered explanations for retrograde motion of planets.\n- Implications: Challenged long-held Church teachings and the previously accepted geocentric worldview; laid the groundwork for modern astronomy.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473

1543)

• Nationality: Polish astronomer known as the father of heliocentric theory.\n- Significant Work: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543).\n- Shift Focus: Transitioned the astronomical focus from an Earth-centered to a sun-centered framework.\n- Inspiration: His work inspired later scientists such as Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, significantly contributing to the Scientific Revolution.

Tycho Brahe (1546

1601)

• Nationality: Danish astronomer recognized for precise astronomical observations made before the invention of the telescope.\n- Unique Approach: Developed the Tychonic system, which combined elements of both geocentric and heliocentric models to explain planetary movement.\n- Contribution: Provided crucial data that was later utilized to formulate Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.\n- Noteworthy Observation: Recorded a supernova in 1572, contradicting the then-prevailing notion of immutable heavens.

Johannes Kepler (1571

1630)

• Nationality: German mathematician and astronomer, who worked as an assistant to Tycho Brahe.\n- Major Contributions: Developed three fundamental laws of planetary motion:1. Elliptical Orbits: Planets move in elliptical paths around the Sun.\n 2. Equal Areas in Equal Times: A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.\n 3. Orbital Period Relation: The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.\n- Support for Heliocentrism: Provided mathematical backing for the heliocentric theory.\n- Important Works: Astronomia nova (1609) and Harmonices Mundi (1619).

Galileo Galilei (1564

1642)

• Nationality: Italian scientist renowned for his developments in astronomy using the telescope.\n- Key Observations: Discovered Jupiter’s moons, analyzed the phases of Venus, and observed sunspots.\n- Advocacy: Supported Copernican heliocentrism while challenging Church authorities.\n- Contributions to Physics: Developed foundational laws of motion and the concept of inertia.\n- Major Work: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632).\n- Consequences: Tried by the Inquisition, ultimately leading to house arrest.

Isaac Newton (1642

1727)

• Nationality: English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer.\n- Groundbreaking Work: **Philosophi

Naturalis Principia Mathematica** (1687).\n- Major Achievements: Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.\n- Concept: Introduced the idea of the “World Machine,” asserting that the universe operates according to natural laws.\n- Methodology: Integrated empirical observation with mathematics, forming a cornerstone of the Scientific Revolution.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646

1716)

• Nationality: German mathematician and philosopher; co-inventor of calculus with Newton.\n- Contributions: Discourse on the mechanistic universe and rationalist philosophy.\n- Areas of Impact: Made contributions to metaphysics, logic, and the early development of probability theory.

Royal Society and The Academies

• Description: Scientific institutions founded in England (Royal Society, 1660) and other parts of Europe.\n- Goals:- Promoted collaborative efforts, experimentation, and scientific publication.\n - Journals like Philosophical Transactions (London) and Journal des Savants (France) stimulated international communication and validated discoveries.

Galen (c. 129

c. 216 CE)

• Background: Ancient Greek physician whose theories dominated medicine until the outbreak of the Scientific Revolution (16th

17th century).\n- Medical Theory: Based on the Theory of Four Humors, which guided diagnosis and treatment protocols.\n- Challenges: The concepts laid out by Galen were challenged by emerging figures such as Paracelsus, Vesalius, and William Harvey during the Scientific Revolution.

Paracelsus (1493

1541)

• Nationality: Swiss physician, alchemist, and chemist.\n- Advocacy: Promoted chemical remedies over traditional Galenic medicine.\n- Contributions:- Introduced the concept of dose-response and elements foundational to modern pharmacology.\n - Combined elements of mysticism with empiricism in medicinal practices.

Andreas Vesalius (1514

1564)

• Nationality: Belgian anatomist, recognized for his significant contributions to the study of human anatomy.\n- Key Work: De humani corporis fabrica (1543).\n- Achievements:- Corrected several anatomical errors propagated by Galen through direct human dissection.\n - Revolutionized the study of anatomy and the methodology of medical education.\n - Championed empirical observation over traditional authorities.

William Harvey (1578

1657)

• Nationality: English physician noted for his work on the circulatory system.\n- Major Work: De Motu Cordis (1628).\n- Contributions: - Demonstrated the circulation of blood through the body.\n - Combined empirical observations and experimentation, challenging Galenic physiology.\n - Laid the foundation for modern cardiology and physiology.

Robert Boyle (1627

1691)

• Nationality: Chemist known as the “Father of Modern Chemistry.”\n- Significant Work: The Sceptical Chymist (1661).\n- Advocated for the experimental method, moving away from speculative alchemy.\n- Established fundamental principles of gas laws, known as Boyle’s Law:\n - States that for a given mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to its pressure:\n P \times V = k (where $k$ is a constant).

Antoine Lavoisier (1743

1794)

• Nationality: French chemist recognized as the “Father of Modern Chemistry.”\n- Major Contributions:- Demonstrated the conservation of mass in chemical reactions.\n - Identified the role of oxygen in combustion processes.\n - Systematized chemical nomenclature and established the framework for modern chemistry.\n- Fate: Executed during the French Revolution cited as a symbol of scientific ideals from the Enlightenment.

Margaret Cavendish (1623

1673)

• Nationality: English philosopher and writer.\n- Contribution: Engaged in scientific debates within the Royal Society.\n- Critique: Criticized the male dominance in science and advocated for natural philosophy.\n- Major Work: Observations upon Experimental Philosophy.\n- Impact: Argued for the inclusion of women's contributions in scientific inquiry.

Maria Sibylla Merian (1647

1717)

• Nationality: Naturalist and entomologist recognized for documenting insect life cycles, particularly metamorphosis.\n- Fieldwork: Conducted influential observational work in Suriname (South America).\n- Integration: Combined the disciplines of art and science, enhancing methods of empirical observation in biological studies.

Maria Winkelmann (1670

1720)

• Nationality: German astronomer.\n- Achievements: Discovered a comet in 1702.\n- Collaboration: Worked with her husband, Gottfried Kirch, to conduct astronomical observations.\n- Challenges: Faced significant gender discrimination in her field, exemplifying women's contributions to science during the Scientific Revolution.

René Descartes (1596

1650)

• Nationality: French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist.\n- Main Work: Discourse on Method (1637).\n- Development: Introduced Cartesian dualism, emphasizing the separation of mind (res cogitans) from body (res extensa).\n- Philosophy: Advocated rationalism, claiming that true knowledge arises from reason rather than sensory experience.\n- Famous Quote: Cogito, ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”), which underscores the basis of his philosophy.\n- Influence: Significantly impacted later Enlightenment thinkers and approaches to scientific reasoning.

Cartesian Dualism

• Definition: Philosophical principle separating the mind from the body, allowing for mechanistic understanding of the natural world while preserving spiritual beliefs.\n- Significance: Formed the basis for modern philosophy of mind and rationalist science.

Francis Bacon (1561

1626)

• Nationality: English philosopher and statesman.\n- Role: Pioneer of empiricism in scientific thought.\n- Advocacy: Promoted a scientific method based on observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning.\n- Key Work: Novum Organum (1620).\n- Contrast: His empiricism contrasted with Descartes' rationalism, emphasizing practical experience over pure reason.

Scientific Method

• Definition: A systematic procedure for acquiring knowledge, combining elements of empiricism, observation, experimentation, and reasoning.\n- Two Main Approaches:1. Inductive Reasoning (Bacon): Proceeds from specific observations to establish general principles.\n 2. Deductive Reasoning (Descartes, rationalists): Moves from general principles to specific conclusions.\n- Importance: Foundation of modern scientific inquiry and practice.

Inductive Reasoning

• Definition: A method of reasoning that develops broader generalizations from specific observations.\n- Importance: Essential in laboratory experimentation and forms a critical component of early modern scientific efforts.\n- Example: William Harvey observing blood circulation to create overarching physiological principles.

Deductive Reasoning

• Definition: This form of reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from general premises.\n- Usage: Employed by rationalist philosophers, such as Descartes, to derive specific outcomes from established laws.\n- Example: Using Newton’s laws of motion to predict the behavior of celestial bodies.

High Culture vs. Popular Culture

• High Culture: - Refers to elite, intellectual, or artistic achievements.\n - Examples include scientific publications, classical music, and salon gatherings.\n- Popular Culture: - Encompasses traditions, folk practices, festivals, chapbooks, and blood sports.\n - Reflects societal stratification and the diffusion of Enlightenment thought among wider audiences.

Baruch Spinoza (1632

1677)

• Nationality: Dutch philosopher associated with rationalism.\n- Major Work: Ethics (1677).\n- Ideology: Promoted pantheism, asserting that God and nature are one and emphasized the role of reason and natural laws guiding human behavior.\n- Challenge: Questioned conventional religious authorities and dogmas.

Blaise Pascal (1623

1662)

• Nationality: French mathematician, physicist, philosopher, and theologian.\n- Key Work: Pensées.\n- Focus: Attempted to reconcile faith and reason, introducing Pascal's Wager, which argues on the rationality of believing in God.\n- Contributions: Significant advancements in probability theory and hydraulics.

Immanuel Kant (1724

1804)

• Nationality: German philosopher, considered a central figure in Enlightenment thought.\n- Emphasis: Asserts the role of reason as the bedrock for morality and knowledge.\n- Significant Work: Critique of Pure Reason (1781).\n- Advocacy: Stressed the autonomy of human reason, bridging rationalism and empiricism.

Enlightenment (17th

18th Century)

• Definition: Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, skepticism, and societal reform.\n- Goals: Promoted progress across government, religious practices, education, and social structures.\n- Key Themes: Natural rights, separation of powers, empiricism, and religious toleration.\n- Spreading Mechanisms: Disseminated through salons, print culture, travel literature, and academic institutions.

Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657

1757)

• Nationality: French writer and popularizer of scientific concepts.\n- Notable Work: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds.\n- Purpose: Made scientific concepts accessible to a broader, educated public, thus promoting acceptance of heliocentrism and rational thought.

Skepticism

• Definition: An intellectual approach that questions established knowledge and traditional authority.\n- Function: Prominent amongst Enlightenment thinkers and scientific revolutionaries; fostered a critical evaluation of religion, superstition, and long-standing practices.

Pierre Bayle (1647

1706)

• Nationality: French philosopher, critic, and skeptic.\n- Major Work: Historical and Critical Dictionary.\n- Advocacy: Promoted religious tolerance and the rational critique of dogmas, influencing figures such as Voltaire and other philosophes.

Impact of Travel Literature/Jamess Cook (1728

1779)

• Function: Accounts of exploration expanded public knowledge of geography, cultures, and natural history.\n- Effect: Fostered cultural relativism and challenged European claims of superiority over other cultures.\n- Inspiration: Travel writings fueled curiosity during the Enlightenment, enhancing empirical observation.

Cultural Relativism

• Definition: Idea positing that beliefs and practices should be regarded in their cultural context.\n- Opposing View: Serves against ethnocentric perspectives and promotes tolerance and critical inquiry.\n- Influence: Impacted the fields of anthropology, philosophy, and humanism during the Enlightenment.

Denis Diderot (1713

1784)

• Nationality: French philosopher, writer, and editor of the Encyclopédie (1751

1772).\n- Role: Aimed to compile and disseminate knowledge across the sciences, arts, and philosophy.\n- Ideological Outreach: Advocated for rationalism, secularism, and direct critique of religious authority, engaged with the Paris intellectual networks and salons.

John Locke (1632

1704)

• Nationality: English philosopher pivotal in the development of empiricism and political theory.\n- Major Works:- Two Treatises of Government (1689).\n - Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).\n- Concepts:- Tabula Rasa: Humans are born as blank slates, molded by experiences.\n - Advocated for natural rights to life, liberty, and property.\n- Influence: His ideas significantly shaped Enlightenment political thought and inspired the American and French revolutions.

Philosophes (18th Century, France & Europe)

• Definition: Intellectuals advocating for reason, reform, tolerance, and progress.\n- Critique: Soundly critiqued absolutism, superstition, and church authority.\n- Notable Figures: Included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot, and Condorcet.\n- Cultural Strategy: Disseminated ideas via salons, essays, pamphlets, and print culture.

Montesquieu (1689

1755)

• Nationality: French philosopher and political theorist.\n- Major Works: Persian Letters (1721) and The Spirit of Laws (1748).\n- Ideological Advocacy: Promoted the separation of powers in government as a means to prevent tyranny.\n- Legacy: Influenced constitutional frameworks in America and Europe.

Voltaire (1694

1778)

• Nationality: French philosopher, writer, and vehement critic of religious intolerance.\n- Advocacy: Championed freedom of speech, reason, and deism.\n- Notable Works: Included Candide and various letters advocating social reform.\n- Ideological Challenge: Exemplified critiques of absolutism and Church authority.

Deism

• Definition: Belief in a rational God who creates the universe but does not interfere in natural occurrences.\n- Characteristics: Emphasizes natural law and morality based on reason rather than miracles or scriptural interpretations.\n- Notable Advocates: Popular among Enlightenment figures such as Voltaire and Thomas Jefferson.

David Hume (1711

1776)

• Nationality: Scottish philosopher and historian, associated with empiricism and skepticism.\n- Major Work: A Treatise of Human Nature.\n- Ideological Focus: Emphasized experience and observation and criticized religious absolutes, shaping future debates in social and political philosophy.

The Physiocrats (18th Century, France)

• Definition: Economic thinkers advocating for recognizing a natural economic order and minimal government intervention in the economy.\n- Leader: François Quesnay (1694

1774).\n- Ideological Focus: Highlighted agriculture as the primary source of wealth and laid foundational concepts for classical economics and capitalism.

Adam Smith (1723

1790)

• Nationality: Scottish economist and moral philosopher.\n- Major Work: The Wealth of Nations (1776).\n- Key Concepts: Advocated for laissez-faire economics and the division of labor; proposed the concept of the “invisible hand” guiding free markets.\n- Significance: Established principles which would become cornerstones of modern economic liberalism and capitalism.

Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723

1789)

• Nationality: French philosopher notable for his advocacy of atheism and materialism.\n- Major Work: System of Nature (1770).\n- Critique: Criticized religion as a form of superstition, promoting ethics grounded in rationalist thought.\n- Representation: Exemplified radical Enlightenment philosophy, challenging traditional norms.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712

1778)

• Nationality: Swiss/French philosopher, political theorist, and writer.\n- Major Works: The Social Contract (1762) and Émile (1762).\n- Advocacy: Promoted the notion of the general will, social equity, and natural education.\n- Influence: His ideas significantly shaped the French Revolution and principles of democratic governance.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743

1794)

• Nationality: French philosopher, mathematician, and political theorist.\n- Advocacy: Advocated for societal progress, education, and women's rights.\n- Notable Work: Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795).\n- Ideals: Promoted optimism regarding human rationality and the ideals of the Enlightenment.

The Woman’s Question/Feminism

• Context: The ongoing debate regarding women’s rights and education during the Enlightenment.\n- Key Figures: Included Mary Astell (1666

1731), Mary Wollstonecraft (1759

1797), and Marie Thérèse Geoffrin (1699

1777).\n- Advocacy: Pushed for educational opportunities, intellectual involvement, and gender equality.\n- Social Impact: Salons, such as Geoffrin’s, became venues for women to wield intellectual influence.

Rococo Art (18th Century, France)

• Characteristic: Light, decorative, and ornate artistic style emphasizing themes of leisure, love, and aristocratic life.\n- Notable Artists: Included François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard.\n- Cultural Association: Closely linked to high culture and elite tastes in Enlightenment France.

Neoclassicism (18th Century)

• Description: Artistic movement in response to Rococo, inspired by classical antiquity.\n- Emphasis on: Simplicity, symmetry, and moral virtuousness.\n- Representative Artist: Jacques-Louis David (1748

1825), whose works often reflected Enlightenment political ideals and revolutionary sentiments.

Baroque Art (17th Century, Europe)

• Characteristic: Grand, dramatic, and emotionally charged artistic style emphasizing movement and tension.\n- Notable Artists: Included Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598

1680) and Diego Velázquez (1599

1660).\n- Bernini's Works: Included the St. Peter’s Baldachin and Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; showcased the intertwining of art with religious and political motifs.\n- Velázquez's Contribution: Gained fame as the Spanish court painter, especially recognized for Las Meninas, blending realism with dramatic portrayal.\n- Functional Role: Served both ecclesiastical (Counter-Reformation) and sovereign purposes, demonstrating authority and divine power.

Rococo Art (Again, 18th Century, France)

• Description: Contrasting with Baroque, this style was light, whimsical, and focused on themes of aristocratic leisure and romance.\n- Impact: Linked heavily to Enlightenment high culture and elite patronage, yet often critiqued for its perceived frivolity.

Music: Johann Sebastian Bach (1685

1750)

• Nationality: German composer celebrated for mastery of complex counterpoint and religious music.\n- Significant Works: Included the Brandenburg Concertos and Mass in B Minor.\n- Artistic Style: Merged technical excellence with deep religious devotion.

George Frideric Handel (1685

1759)

• Nationality: German/British composer notable during Baroque and early Enlightenment periods.\n- Renowned For: His oratorios and operas, especially Messiah.\n- Contribution: Worked in court and public concert settings, reflecting the rise of public culture in music.

Franz Joseph Haydn (1732

1809)

• Nationality: Austrian composer who bridged the Baroque and Classical epochs.\n- Contributions: Developed symphonic and string quartet formats.\n- Patron Participation: Worked for the Esterházy family, illustrating the patronage system in music.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756

1791)

• Nationality: Austrian composer and child prodigy, significantly influential in the evolution of classical music.\n- Iconic Works: Included The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni.\n- Artistic Approach: Merged emotional expression with structural adeptness, yielding profound popularity.

Samuel Richardson (1689

1761)

• Nationality: English novelist contributing significantly to the early English novel's development.\n- Notable Work: Pamela, exploring themes of morality, individualism, and societal norms.\n- Cultural Placement: Part of broader trends in popular culture within literature.

Henry Fielding (1707

1754)

• Nationality: English novelist and playwright.\n- Major Work: Tom Jones, a satirical piece reflecting on 18th-century societal concerns.\n- Contribution: Paved the way for realistic, secular, and popular literary works during the period.

Edward Gibbon (1737

1794)

• Nationality: English historian, renowned for The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776

1789).\n- Ideological Focus: Applied rational analysis, promoted secularism, and critiqued religious institutions.\n- Representation: Exemplified historiographical practices emerging from Enlightenment thought.

Cesare Beccaria (1738

1794)

• Nationality: Italian philosopher and legal reformer.\n- Major Work: On Crimes and Punishments (1764).\n- Advocacy: Promoted the abolition of torture and capital punishment, emphasizing due process and rational legal reforms.\n- Significance: Central figure in Enlightenment views of justice and legal philosophy.

Chapbooks/Popular Culture

• Definition: Inexpensive printed booklets that circulated folktales, practical knowledge, and current events.\n- Importance: Made Enlightenment ideas more accessible to a broader audience, particularly among the lower classes.\n- Cultural Interaction: Reflected and shaped the interaction between high culture and popular practices.

John Wesley (1703

1791)

• Nationality: Founder of the Methodist movement.\n- Ideological Focus: Highlighted personal piety, moral discipline, and community outreach.\n- Role: Integrated into religious revivals complementing Enlightenment social reform.

Olympe de Gouges (1748

1793)

• Nationality: French writer and early feminist activist.\n- Major Work: Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791).\n- Advocacy: Challenged male-dominated political and social structures while advocating for women's rights during the revolutionary era.

Maria de Montagu (1689

1762)

• Nationality: Early advocate focused on women's education and literacy rights.\n- Contribution: Linked to Enlightenment discussions surrounding The Woman’s Question, important in historical advocacy for women's roles in society.

Jeremy Bentham (1748

1832)

• Nationality: English philosopher and legal reformer; known as the founder of utilitarian ethics.\n- Central Principle: Formulated the principle of the Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number.\n- Ideology: Advocated for laws and policies based on reason and empirical outcomes, influencing later reform movements and ethical philosophy.

Rococo & Neoclassical Architecture

• Rococo Architecture: Defined by playful, ornamental designs aligned with aristocratic interiors.\n- Neoclassical Architecture: Characterized by symmetrical design, drawing inspiration from Roman and Greek antiquity; moralistic and austere.\n- Notable Architects: Included Balthasar Neumann (1687

1753, Germany) and Jean-Laurent Le Blond (France).\n- Funding Sources: Often patroned by monarchs or wealthy elites supporting Enlightenment ideals.

The Pantheon (Paris, completed 1790)

• Description: Neoclassical church and mausoleum located in Paris.\n- Symbolism: Represents Enlightenment rationality, civic virtue, and secular principles influencing governance and society.

Masonic Lodges

• Definition: Social and intellectual clubs designed to promote philosophy, science, and moral improvement.\n- Role: Facilitated the spread of Enlightenment ideas and networks throughout Europe.\n- Membership: Often consisted of individuals connected to political and cultural elites, aiding in the dissemination of progressive ideas.